1920s Jazz in Armstrong's (What Did I Do To Be So) Black and Blue
Jazz music has gone through multiple changes that have led to its overall development as a music style. Jazz has had various musical backgrounds including folk music and popular music influence the enlargement of distinct styles that may be found in the music form. The most well known type of jazz music was perhaps New Orleans Jazz featuring a highly polyphonic technique called collective improvisation – proved irresistible enough to attract the attention of the whole country. New Orleans is considered the birthplace of jazz music and it is still a place in the country that is full of a vibrant musical scene, with a heavy combination of traditional African musical texture and rhythms and key points of European harmony and form. The evolution of Jazz was characterized by the use of blue notes, swing groove, polyrhythms, improvisation, and varied melodic texture which was a direct ascension from the African roots of the genre and standard elements of the style. Performers including Louis Armstrong tweaked jazz music, which created a variety of different Jazz styles and added distinct characteristics to their music. Armstrong greatly solidified the way the swing groove was used and interpreted in New York by carrying the New Orleans swing with him to New York in the 1920s.
Jazz performers would often take popular songs of the day, usually the songs of popular Broadway shows, and modify and create their own interpretations of the different pieces with additions of jazz elements and new arrangements. In Louis Armstrong’s “(What Did I Do To Be So) Black and Blue,” which was originally directed in the Broadway show, “Hot Chocolates,” Armstrong clearly shows characteristics of 1920s jazz. For example, his interpretation of the piece uses polyrhythms that are divided between the soloists, harmony, rhythm, improvisation, and swinging groove throughout. Armstrong’s vocal solos incorporate blue notes, and the trombone does the same by smearing and sliding. Also, throughout the piece Armstrong uses melodic texture that is largely polyphonic with a monophonic coda. As a result, Armstrong’s interpretation of “Black and Blue” illustrates the characteristics of Jazz in the 1920s and still retains the individuality of timbre in both trumpet and vocal solos that later become common of jazz musicians.
The original version of “(What Did I Do To Be So) Black and Blue” was featured in “Hot Chocolates,” concerning African-Americans and performed by African-Americans. During the “Hot Chocolates” performance, “Black and Blue” was on stage with humorous acrobatic dances and other jokes that mocked blacks, the plight of blacks, and old racial stereotypes similar to those seen in minstrel shows. The show was looked at with moderate amusement, and most reviews didn’t address the presence of “Black and Blue” in favor of “Ain’t Misbehavin. ” Although, one reviewer who wrote for Variety remarked that it was “quite the lyric” (Singer, 220), most overlooked the statements it had made.
Aside from its first failure, “Black and Blue” was later praised as America’s first “racial protest song,” (Singer, 219) especially in consideration with Louis Armstrong’s interpretation. Armstrong later released his version with strategic alterations included which increased the overall sense of racial protest and it became a universal way to promote race equality in a society that is mainly driven by white men. Armstrong made alterations in the form and text, as he removed many of the comical and controversial lyrics, replacing them with instrumental interludes and trumpet solos. For example, the complaint “I’m white inside, but that don’t help my case/’cause I can’t hide what’s in my face” of mistreatment was carried through the text while it was still subliminal enough for the whites to not cause a scene. Many of the discarded verses that would have been controversial were replaced with instrumental solos which allowed Armstrong to create musical value which would become extremely popular.
Armstrong was a strong advocate for racial tolerance and equality, although he stood on a confusing ground as he was criticized for being too tolerant of racial stereotypes. For example, his release of “Black and Blue” stands out against racial prejudice in the nation. He insisted on touring the South with an integrated band or not at all, even when the audiences were segregated (with blacks in the balcony). In 1928, he recorded with one of the first integrated ensembles and he also served as a Jazz Ambassador as he toured various parts of the world to promote interracial tolerance among U. S. foreign relations. He also took a stand in the integration of schools and refused the first offer the federal government gave him to travel to Ghana until Eisenhower enforced the integration of Arkansas schools. Along with his positive acts towards racial equality and tolerance, he was also harshly criticized for his allowing of stereotypical humor and minstrel show characteristics to represent him. Over time with the occurring differences from generation to generation, black attitudes changed toward “easy going, non-intellectioal Louis,” (Teachout, 324) from one of racial pride to one of almost disgust of his submissive ways.
Armstrong brought many innovations to jazz music and to the society he was living in. It can be seen that Armstrong’s position is a moderate tolerance as he did not actively advocate equality without submitting to the segregation of the South. Armstrong created a balance between the tolerance of certain injustices as well as the refusal to tolerate others. Armstrong ultimately proved himself to be a valuable asset to the desegregation of races in the U. S. as he told one reporter, “the way they are treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell. ” This shows that publicly, he voiced his opinion and ultimately used jazz music to work on bridging the gap of racial equality.
