International Politics In Sudan
South Sudan and Sudan have now become separate supremacies with diplomatic bonds. Sudan has a foreign policy that states there shall be no interference from the nation towards other nations’ internal affairs. It believes in global autonomy as well as human rights, equality, justice, sustainable development, human interdependence, and neighbor relations (Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, 2019). This paper seeks to enumerate factors that play a big part in determining Sudan’s relationships by analyzing its relationships to individual nations all around the globe.
Bilateral Relations
The relationship between Sudan and other nations is highly dependent on the region, politics, economic flux, and cultural view. Bilateral relations refer to the comparative relationships between Sudan and any other nation. The region determines relationships because of boundary and ally issues such as those of Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Libya on either side of the country. These factors determine whether the nations will enjoy cordial relationships or otherwise. The politics of the comparative countries determine the nature of friendship and so does culture and religion. Economic flux, on the other hand, indicates that the countries are not at par thus the dependent one rarely has trouble conforming.
Africa
Egypt is considered a very close ally of Sudan from their close historical ties. The two nations share both political and cultural ties. One such instance was the Camp David peace initiatives of 1979 that were held by Egypt with Israel where Sudan demonstrated great solidarity for their partner (Aljazeera, 2012). In a reversed case, Ahmed Nazif, the Egyptian Prime Minister, made a statement in support of the Gezira Scheme of Sudan which was about two million acres of cultivatable land and dedicated resources towards the irrigation. In addition, he established a joint agricultural project with the nation. These events took place in 2008, over 29 years down the line from the Camp David occasion. Regardless of the cordial relationships between the two nations, Egypt was reluctant to involve itself in the secession politics between South and North Sudan in the year 2011. Those peace talks that led to the successful secession of South Sudan were held in Kenya under the auspices of the IAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development) and they were dedicated to ending the 22-year civil war that had ravaged Sudan (John, 2018). Egypt was observed to have been in favor of the joined Sudan hence their reluctance to participate in the division talks. These two nations have therefore been in support of each other over the years.
Ethiopia has been historically tied to the Alodia and the Makuria Kingdom from the medieval times. One recorded event was the Mahdist War between the Ethiopian Empire and the Mahdist Sudan (Farah, & Opanga, 2016). However, towards the end of the Ethiopian Civil War, Sudan and Ethiopia had a very good relationship because the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front had been supported greatly by the Sudanese government in a bid to make fastidious allies. After this, relations were strained again in 1995 after the attempted assassination of Hosni Mubarak, the then President of Egypt, when he was leaving the OAU summit in Addis Ababa (Aljazeera, 2012). Investigations suggested that Sudan had a hand in this occurrence and the Ethiopian embassy had to take action to that effect. The series of steps that Ethiopia took included the closing of the Sudanese consulate located in Gambela, terminating flights between the two nations, and reducing staff at the Sudanese embassy. This would definitely not sit well with Sudan but the beginning of the Ethiopia-Eritrea War saw an end of this conflict in 1999 when Omar Hassam Al-Bashir, the President of Sudan, visited Addis Ababa. The boundary issue at Gambela was to be solved in 2008 but the demarcation of the boundary was delayed by the second civil war of Sudan. Western Ethiopian border patrol reported displacement of over 2000 civilians due to infringement by the Sudan militia who torched dozens of Ethiopian homes and imprisoned about 34 people in Amhara. The then Prime Minister, Meles Zenawi of Ethiopia, denied these allegations and declared that the agreement still stood between the two nations. Ethiopia had sheltered about 67000 Sudan refugees in 2007 (Farah, & Opanga, 2016). These two nations have had a dynamic relationship with both tough and good times.
Libya had a good relationship with Sudan according to historical encounters until 1970 to 1985. Between this time, Libyans crossed the borders into Western Sudan to raid. In 1985, the order was restored when Sudan began its diplomatic relationships again. Around this period, the then Libyan President, Muammar Qaddafi, ended his aid to the Christian and Animist party, the Sudanese People's Liberation Army which was based in South Sudan that had rebels who were led by John Garang (John, 2018). Qaddafi welcomed the reign of General Suwar al Dahab in close succession. In 1985, military protocol ensued in Sudan and was signed by both nations. This led to Muammar being the first president to visit the new Khartoum administration. He supported the opposition leader Sadiq Mahdi after a while, who later became prime minister in 1986. However, Mahdi turned against Muammar by declaring Sudan a neutral state in international conflicts and ordered Libyan troops out of Sudan. Mahdi was overthrown in 1989 through a coup d’état and was replaced by Al-Bashir who restored relationships with Qaddafi as part of a policy of strengthening relationships with Arab states (Farah, & Opanga, 2016). Despite the long-standing relationships, and regardless of the Unity treaty that the two were to sign, later on, Sudan participated in overthrowing Qaddafi by fortifying Kufra.
Chad and Sudan have been at odds since the 23rd of December, 2005, when Chad declared a state of Belligerency with Sudan. It accused the latter of being a common enemy of the nation. This event was as a consequence of an attack on Adre which claimed about 100 lives on the 18th of December that same year (Aljazeera, 2012). Chad made a statement claiming that the Sudan militias made daily incursions into the nation and robbed or killed within the Chadian border. Subsequently, Sudan cut its diplomatic relationships with Chad on May 11, 2008, claiming it was abetting rebels in Darfur in their attack on Khartoum. It is, therefore, mentionable that the two nations have had a bitter past which is yet to be cleared.
Uganda, Morocco, and Kenya have similar dynamic ties to Sudan as the majority of Africa. Morocco has a cordial relationship with Sudan because Sudan was among the first few nations that recognized the sovereignty of the Moroccan people and actually campaigned on their side. This case applies to South Sudan as a nation, being that it was first recognized as a sovereign state by Sudan in 2011. Uganda and Sudan have intimate relationships because of the historical rebellion ties (John, 2018). Instances such as the death of John Garang, the then vice president of Sudan and rebellion leader, while he was aboard a Ugandan helicopter have greatly played a key role. The backing of the Lord's Resistance Army of Uganda by the Sudanese and the reversed case in Sudan has ensured that the two nations enjoy a satisfying relationship. Kenya is notable for housing many refugees from Sudan as well as aiding in the time of civil wars and most of all, being at the forefront of ensuring peace among the Southern and Northern Sudan regions in the push that led to the end of the civil wars.
Asia
China has been a long-standing trade partner of many African nations, among them being Sudan (Aljazeera, 2012). China is actually the biggest trade partner of Sudan. China imports oil from the country and Sudan imports cheap stuff from China. The nations thus enjoy a very cordial diplomatic, economic, and political relationship. Their relationship has been perfect since 1959 making them very good global allies. Education is also another factor that strengthens their relationship with many students from Sudan going to China for further studies. Both nations have something to teach since Chinese learn Arabic in Sudan while Sudanese learn Mandarin in China.
Israel was at war with the Arabian nations in 1967 up to the early 2000s. Sudan initially declared war upon Israel until the Camp David Accords which involved Egypt were finalized. However, the relationship between the two nations remained hostile. Israel claimed that Sudan supplied Iran with weapons in the war at Gaza while Sudan claimed Israel had ordered air strikes against the nation on the munition facilities. Sudan explicitly stated that it could never normalize relationships with Israel (John, 2018). There remain no formal diplomatic relations between the two nations and their relationship is as sour as ever. The Israeli Law specifies Sudan as an enemy of the nation and bans travels to the nation without special permission from the government of Israel and such was the reversed situation. Until 2016, no efforts of normalization had been made but the foreign minister in Sudan, Ibrahim Ghandour, began normalization discussions together with lifting economic sanctions against Israel but they are yet to give any impactive result (Engle Merry, 2016).
Pakistan and Sudan have a brotherly relationship considering their many similarities such as political and religious perspectives. They are both members of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Group of 77, and Like-Minded Group. During the Indo-Pakistani wars, Sudan openly supported Pakistan. Pakistan, in its turn, contributed its personnel in the UN peacekeeping forces in the second civil war in addition for supporting Sudan during the challenge on its sovereignty and boundary battles with both South Sudan and Egypt (John, 2018). The two nations aided each other in several natural disasters beginning with the 2010 Sudanese aid on Pakistan after the floods and the 2005 earthquakes. Pakistan sent aid to Sudan during drought and famine. The two nations aid each other in the education and medical fronts. Most of the aid is from Pakistan towards Sudan.
Iraq has its embassy at Khartoum while Sudan has an embassy at Baghdad. The two nations are very close. They first fought together at the Iran-Iraq wars where Sudan supported Iraq at the Gulf war. Their trust was so strong that Khartoum was made the center of the Iraq intelligence in the next war. Both nations are Muslim and Arabic speaking nations which promote the relationships between them greatly. Tension started when the American Invasion began but the relationship was quickly normalized (Engle Merry, 2016). On the other side of the boundaries, Iran and Sudan have also had cordial relationships but in 2016 it severed ties with Iran and choose to align itself with Saudi Arabia.
Turkey has a very cordial relationship with Sudan. Sudan has their embassy at Ankara while Turkey has its own at Khartoum. The two nations had close links to the original Ottoman Empire thus they remain in nominal ties. In addition, Northern Sudan was under the rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Istanbul autonomous vassal, which makes the two nations relatives of a kind (Engle Merry, 2016). They are on opposing sides at the Middle East Peace Process but they have always joined forces to combat the common problems among them such as the ongoing wars between Palestine and Israel. Both nations have appealed to the Palestine nation in regards to allowing talks to culminate the current dire economic and political situation in the turmoiled state.
Qatar has had a good relationship with Sudan since 1972 after they inaugurated their embassy in Khartoum. Sudan also has an embassy at Doha. Qatar enjoys a fairly huge investment in the nation and it has also participated in brokering peace agreements at Darfur between the government and the rebels. South Korea established its relationship with the nation in 1977, which was mostly because of their intelligence efforts. Malaysia and Sudan have a brotherly relationship and both nations have embassies. Armenia also established cordial relationships in 1992.
Europe
Belarus and Sudan have close ties. Belarus has been exporting weaponry to Sudan since 1996. In 2007, Sudan representatives attended the Belarus weaponry show. The Belarusian president, Alexander Lukashenko, visited Sudan in 2017, in an event that saw over 50 million dollars contracts signed. Among the weapons sent to Sudan from Belarus was SU-24 planes in 2013, nine BMP-2 infantry fighting vehicles, and 16 122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30) howitzer guns. Belarus plans to test their model harvester in Sudan along with other energy projects under the cooperation agreement signed recently.
Russia and Sudan both have respective embassies. Sudan declared neutrality in its attempt to maintain relationships with both Soviet Union and the United States. Russia and Sudan have a cordial economic relationship that lasted even after the attempt on president Gaafar Nimeiry in 1971 by the Sudanese Communist (Engle Merry, 2016). The president blamed the USSR thus relationships remained cordial and were tested again in 1979 when the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan was supported by Sudan after USSR invaded. After Vladimir Putin became president the relationship was rectified. Russia supports the sovereignty of Sudan greatly and has very close economic ties with the nation.
Denmark has had poor relationships with Sudan over the years. Sudan boycotted the goods from Denmark after they made fun of Muhammad in newspaper cartoons and Al-Bashir stated that Danes were no longer allowed to set foot inside Sudan (John, 2018). He also asked other Muslim nations to boycott the nation’s products. The tension caused both nations to close their embassies since then. Bulgaria has had similar troubles which have waned over time.
The United Kingdom has had a shifting effect on Sudan. In 2009, Sudan expelled the largest foreign aid agencies after Al-Bashir was summoned to the ICC to answer criminal charges. He claimed foreign workers were thieves and spies (Aljazeera, 2012). This was despite the obvious negative impact that the move was estimated to result in. Oxfam served over 600,000 people before its expulsion. This would have had a disastrous effect in the long run.
Americas
America is generally inclined towards cordial relationships. Brazil and Mexico are worth mentioning in this regard. Brazil has an embassy in Khartoum while Sudan has their embassy in Brasilia. The two nations enjoy a mutual economic relationship, considering that Brazil exports sugar while Sudan exports oil. Mexico and Sudan, on the other hand, have a diplomatic relationship. Mexico has an embassy dedicated to Sudan at Cairo in Egypt and they maintain the honorary consulate as well. However, Sudan does not have an embassy dedicated to Mexico.
The United States and Sudan have a relationship based on peace and economy but it still bears towards the political front. In 1997, U. S. placed a total asset freeze on the Sudanese government in addition to placing a trade embargo against the nation. This was done under the Executive Order 13067, where the U. S. claimed that it believed the Sudanese government participated actively in destabilizing neighboring governments, aiding terrorism, human rights violation, and was a threat to the U. S. foreign policy and national security (Aljazeera, 2012). In 2008, talks between the two nations broke down due to the issue of the oil-producing Abyei region ownership. In 2015, U. S. issued licenses dedicated to rectifying the sanctions on Sudan by the Department of Treasury. This general license was for authorizing the exportation and re-exportation of certain software and hardware services necessary for internet communications. It can be claimed that the relationship between the two nations is kind of a dependent one, with Sudan depending on the U. S.
Conclusion
Several factors determine the type of relationships which a nation shall have with Sudan. As biased as it is, the biggest determinant of cordiality is religion. Good examples can be given in this effect such as Pakistan and Iran. Economic factors also influence friendship decisions such as it is with China and Belarus. Dependency factors where the nation maintains relationships that are not mutual for its own gain are also evidenced by its neutrality in the USSR and U. S. choices. Political factors influence decisions and friendships as it was with Uganda and Libya. Finally, the war and weaponry issue need solid allies thus Belarus, Egypt, and Pakistan play the role of battle allies.
References
Aljazeera. (2012). Country Profile: Sudan, A look at the politics, economy and foreign relations of Sudan. Ret6rieved February 6, 2019, from https://www. aljazeera. com/indepth/spotlight/southsudanindependence/2011/07/20117217168762644. html
Embassy of the Republic of Sudan. (2019). Sudan's Foreign Policy. Retrieved February 6, 2019, from http://www. sudanembassy. org/index. php/sudans-foreign-policy
Engle Merry, S. (2016). The Rule of Law and Authoritarian Rule: Legal Politics in Sudan. Law & Social Inquiry, 41(2), 465-470.
Farah, I. , & Opanga, V. (2016). Hydro-Politics of the Nile: The Role of South Sudan. Development, 59(3-4), 308-313.
John, P. (2018). Sudan - Foreign Relations. (GlobalSecurity. org). Retrieved February 6, 2019, from https://www. globalsecurity. org/military/world/sudan/forrel. htm
