Selfies, Gender, And The Perception Of Narcissism

In today's world, time-consuming activities such as going shopping, socializing, and even creating more professional connections have been simplified through smartphones and electronic devices; and can be done from any setting at any time. Social media profiles are similar to online selling, considering it is our way of self-advertising. On these sites, individuals can create their identity and portray their authenticity. Self-portraits taken on a smartphone by the person, commonly known as selfies, are the most efficient and personal way of accomplishing it. Since selfies have become so popular, researchers have been interested in this phenomenon. Popular belief associates selfies and narcissism. Correspondingly, researchers have found that narcissism, a personality trait with inflated self-views and attention seeking, showed positive and substantial associations with the frequency of selfie- posting (Weiser, 2015). The main focus of this study is to understand the correlation between posting selfies and the perception of these users’ narcissistic and self-absorption levels.

Throughout history, people have documented themselves through paintings, self-portraits, photographs, etc. Nowadays, with the advancements of technology, this self-documentation is much easier to achieve and to share. The selfie phenomenon is a modern matter that has been integrated into our society at an impressively rapid rate during the past decade. The term “selfie” was Oxford dictionary’s word of the year in 2013 (Brumfield, 2013).

Regardless of the practical and effective aspects of selfies, researchers believe there are other underlying foundations of their popularity. In an experiment where 78 students were studied, researchers found that the act of taking and sharing a selfie would boost the participants’ self-esteem and increase their social sensitivity (Shin, Kim, Im, & Chong, 2017), which contributes to the use and popularity of selfies.

The objective of social networking sites, such as Instagram, Facebook, or Twitter, is for the users to engage and socialize with others. In order to be active on social media, individuals must interact with other posts or post content themselves; and subsequently, attract attention and conversation. The audience perception of the posts varies depending on different factors, for example, whether or not the post includes a photograph. Taylor, Hinck, and Lim (2017) used an online experiment to test how a Facebook status that contained a selfie would alter the audience’s perception compared to a status without a selfie. Participants rated the status updates that included selfies as more narcissistic and inappropriate than the status updates in the control group, that did not contain a selfie (Taylor, Hinck, & Lim, 2017). Posting a selfie attracted more audience, but made the user seem more self-absorbed, compared to strictly updating a status.

Undoubtedly, society today has associated selfies with narcissistic traits. Taylor, Hinck, and Lim (2017) used a two-wave panel survey to study whether individuals with narcissistic traits took selfies to preserve their positive views of themselves, or their narcissism levels increased due to selfie-taking. They found that there was a strong positive reinforcement between selfie behavior and narcissism, in fact, that narcissistic users are more likely to post on social media, but consequently, the more frequently they post on these networking sites, the more narcissistic they become. This idea has promoted poses that can be considered look-diminishing, like the duck face, in order to seem less self-absorbed or narcissistic, and more playful and witty when posting a selfie.

Selfies are a practical and simple way for individuals to express identity, since not only can they be shared instantaneously, but also individuals get to choose which image to portray to the audience. However, in a study where over 200 people were interviewed, 82% of participants stated they preferred more regular pictures on social media than selfies (Diefenbach & Christoforakos, 2017). This study displayed how people agreed more on the negative connotations of selfies, like threats to self-esteem and illusions, rather than the positive ones, like independence. On the other hand, the way individuals appreciate and analyze selfies are affected by self-serving biases. When people are exposed to other people’s selfies, they perceive them as narcissistic and egotistical, meanwhile, when they were asked about their own selfies they find them quirky and ironic (Diefenbach & Christoforakos, 2017), and proceed to explain the reason behind the selfie and why they are not to be considered narcissistic.

The selfie phenomenon has opened doors for many people as a more accessible way of self-promotion and expression on social networking sites. Nonetheless, it has also opened doors for research due to its polemic connotation. Researchers and popular belief associate selfies with positive and negative consequences, such as self-esteem boosts and social sensitivity (Shin et al. , 2017), or self-absorption and narcissism (Halpern et al. , 2017).

Study One

The main focus of this study is to understand the correlation between posting selfies and the perception that these users are more narcissistic and self-absorbed than those that post groupies and professional photographs. We predict that if participants are exposed to selfie photos, then they would believe that an Instagram user 1). Updates her profile picture more frequently, 2). Posts to her social media accounts more often, and 3). Seems more self-absorbed, selfish, narcissistic, and egotistical, compared to participants exposed to either groupie or professional photos, though these latter two conditions should not differ from each other in their Instagram user ratings.

Methods Study One

Participants

One hundred and forty one Florida International University students were chosen using random selection to participate in our study. We recorded that 50. 4% (n = 71) were females and 47. 5% (n = 67) were males, the other 2. 1% (n = 3) did not specify their gender. The participants were 58. 2% Hispanics (n = 82), 9. 9% African Americans (n = 14), 19. 9% Caucasians (n = 28), 3. 5% Asians (n = 5), 1. 4% Native Indian (n = 2), and 7. 1% who selected “Other” as their ethnicity (n = 10). The sample population ranged from 17 to 70 years old, with a mean of 26. 99% (SD = 10. 72). See Appendix A.

Materials and Procedure

The first phase of the study consisted of following the standardized guidelines for informed consent and orally asking participants if they were willing to participate in the research study. After stating the risks and benefits of the study, only if the individuals agreed to participate, they would be selected for the study. With the oral consent of the participants, the study proceeded to the next phase: the questionnaires.

In Part One of the second phase, participants were randomly provided with one of the three questionnaires for this study. The population sample was divided into three conditions (three levels of the independent variable); one-third of the individuals would be in the “Selfie” condition, the other third will be in the “Groupie” condition, and the last third would be in the “Professional” condition. Participants were asked to look at the Instagram page of Emma Wood, a young woman seeking advice about which picture to use to update her profile picture. In all the conditions the Instagram page and information about Emma Wood was identical, the only thing that differed were the options for the profile picture: either three selfies (photos that appear to be taken by Emma and only include her), three groupies (photos taken by Emma with friends or other people), or three professional photographs, depending on the participant’s condition. Regardless of which condition the individuals were in, all the questions throughout the questionnaires were the same. The first question began asking participants to choose one picture out of the three options Emma provided to update her profile picture, and consequently, the participants paid attention to the pictures in their condition. The second question indicated to guess when Emma last updated her profile picture in a ratio (0 = never to 5 = one hour ago). The last of the three general questions asked participants to guess the frequency in which Emma posts her pictures or thoughts in an interval scale (0 = rarely to 5 = constantly).

Part Two focused on collecting the participants’ impression of Emma using ten questions. This section used an interval scale (0 = Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree) to answer the questions about how smart, happy, generous, self-absorbed, helpful, shy, selfish, down-to-earth, narcissistic, and egotistical the participants perceived Emma to be. Out of these ten observations (which were all dependent variables), our study focused on how self-absorbed, selfish, narcissistic, and egotistical the user was perceived. In contrast, participants answered personal questions in the following two parts of the study. Part Three contained 10 out of 40 statements found in the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) that the participants rated in an interval scale as well (0 = Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree). The fourth part recorded the sample population’s demographic information such as gender, ethnicity, age, whether English is their first language, and if they are Florida International University students; they were given the option of leaving blank any questions they did not feel comfortable responding. In addition, participants were asked how often they post their pictures and thoughts on social media (0 = rarely to 5 = constantly). The questionnaire ended with a manipulation check in Part Five, asking which was the best description for the picture participants saw of Emma in Part One of the study: whether it is selfies, groupies, or professional photos. Once the questionnaire was completed, the participants received a debrief, in which they were thanked and explained the hypothesis and the characteristics of the study.

Results Study One

The three questionnaire photo conditions (“Selfie”, “Groupie”, and “Professional”) were our independent variable. On the other hand, the participants’ perception of Emma Wood (smart, happy, generous, self-absorbed, helpful, shy, selfish, down-to-earth, narcissistic, and egotistical) served as dependent variables, specifically focusing on how self-absorbed, selfish, narcissistic, and egotistical Emma was perceived.

To run the manipulation check, we used the photo condition as our independent variable (selfie, groupie, or professional), and the photo participants recalled seeing as the dependent variable; we saw a significant effect, χ2(4) = 177. 89, p <. 001. Most participants in the selfie condition recalled selfies (90. 9%); most participants in the groupie condition recalled seeing groupies (87. 0%); and most participants in professional photo condition recalled seeing professional photos (80. 4%); indicating that participants saw our manipulation as they were intended to. See Appendix B.

For one of our One-Way ANOVA tests, the photo condition (“Selfie”, “Groupie”, and “Professional”) was the independent variable, and the ratings of “Emma seems narcissistic” was the dependent variable; we found a significant condition effect, F(2, 138) = 15. 66, p <. 05. Tukey post hoc tests showed that participants thought Emma seemed more narcissistic in the selfie condition (M = 3. 07, SD = 1. 12) than participants in both the groupie (M = 2. 17, SD = 0. 84) and professional (M = 2. 12, SD = 0. 75) conditions. However, the groupie and the professional conditions did not differ from each other, supporting our prediction that participants exposed to selfies are more likely to perceive Emma as more narcissistic than those who are exposed to groupies or professional photos.

We ran another One-Way ANOVA test, where the independent variable was the photo condition (“Selfie”, “Groupie”, and “Professional”) and how often the participants thought Emma posted her thoughts and pictures on Instagram was the dependent variable. For this test, we found a significant condition effect, F(2, 138) = 13. 749, p <. 05. Tukey post hoc tests showed that participants thought Emma was likely to post more in the selfie condition (M = 3. 20, SD = 1. 06) than participants in both the groupie (M = 2. 27, SD = 0. 85) and professional (M = 2. 35, SD = 0. 90) conditions. However, the groupie and the professional conditions did not differ from each other, supporting our prediction that participants exposed to selfies are more likely to perceive Emma as more active on social media and posting more frequently, than those who are exposed to groupies or professional photos.

Discussion Study One

For this study we predicted that if participants were exposed to selfie photos, then they would believe that an Instagram user will update her profile picture more frequently, post to her social media accounts more often, and seem more self-absorbed, selfish, narcissistic, and egotistical, compared to participants exposed to either groupie or professional photos. These latter two conditions should not differ from each other in their Instagram user ratings. Our results supported our predictions; participants exposed to selfies perceived Emma as more narcissistic than those who are exposed to groupies or professional photos, and those exposed to selfies are more likely to perceive Emma as more active on social media and posting more frequently, than those who are exposed to groupies or professional photos. In addition, the groupie and the professional conditions did not differ from each other. These findings make us question: would the gender of the user affect the perception of narcissism? This becomes the focus of our following study.

Study Two

The prevailing gender differences between men and women established by biology, and the consequent stereotypes implanted by society, have been subject of research and discussion throughout the years. These gender stereotypes are defined as the shared ideas that are common in a group of people or culture about the characteristics and attributes of each gender (Moya, 2003) that are generalized and oversimplified. Researchers have used the Five-FactorModel (FFM) composed by Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscientiousness (C) to conduct studies that focus on gender stereotypes (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001) (Löckenhoff et al, 2014). The study ran in 2001 by Costa et al. found that women considered themselves to have higher levels of neuroticism, agreeableness, warmth, and openness to feelings; however, men thought they were more assertive and open to ideas. Other studies have focused on the participants’ perception of other individuals’ personality traits, rather than their own, and analyze the gender differences; Löckenhoff et al. (2014) used evidence from prior studies about gender stereotypes differences (GSDs) and analyzed responses from 3,323 individuals across 26 nations. The study’s findings indicate that women are slightly perceived as more open, agreeable, conscientious, extraverted, and with some aspects of neuroticism than men, which coincides with the Costa et al. (2001) study’s findings.

Gupta and Hee-Woong (2007) ran a study that indicated that men seek social approval to feel important and knowledgeable. On the other hand, Weatherall (1998) found that women are more interested in forming groups and personal relationships. The last two studies coincide with the study ran by Arpaci et al. (2018); the results indicated that narcissism highly affects selfie-posting behavior for men, suggesting that selfie posting behavior for narcissistic men is related to their search for social approval and admiration; as they would feel relief and happiness when their selfies were liked, shared, or commented. There is also a correlation with the study ran by Thompson and Lougheed (2012) that found that women are more likely to participate in and feel addicted to social media, and tend to feel closer to others when they use these social networking sites, which depicts the importance of forming personal relations (Weatherall, 1998). Sorokowski et al. (2016) studied the differences between females and males when posting selfies; their findings suggest that females posted a higher number of selfies compared to males; there was a significant correlation between histrionic personality scores (related to elevated attention-seeking and need for approval, as well as inappropriate seductive behavior) and total number of selfies posted, which were significant exclusively for men, in contrast to women that showed no correlation between histrionic personality scores and selfie posting behaviors.

Narcissism is a controversial and prevalent personality trait that has been studied extensively throughout the years. Nevertheless, Philipson (1985) defines this personality trait as gender neutral and suggests the portrayal applies and affects men and women equally. Our study is going to focus on looking at the interaction between posting pictures on social media, gender, and the perception of narcissism: Are selfie-posting females or selfie-posting males perceived as more narcissistic? We will first focus on only the types of photos; there are two photo conditions: selfies and professional photos. We predict that participants will see “selfie Avery” as more narcissistic, egotistical, self-absorbed, and selfish, and more likely to update their profile picture and post to social media, than “professional photo Avery”, which should replicate Study One findings. Then, we will focus on the gender of the Instagram user; female or male Avery. We predict that that participants will see the “female Avery” as more egotistical, self-absorbed, and selfish, and more likely to update her profile picture and post to social media, than “male Avery”. Most importantly, we will focus on interaction between gender and type of instagram photo; participants will see Avery as more “narcissistic, egotistical, etc. ” in the Selfie / Female condition (Condition B) than all other conditions. They will find Avery second-most “narcissistic etc. ” in the Professional / Female condition (Condition D), followed by the Selfie / Male condition (Condition A). Participants should find the Professional / Male user the least narcissistic.

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