Setting the Foundation for the Modernization of China
As the last imperial empire in China, the Qing dynasty is recognized for its long-lasting prosperity leading up to the Opium War. Our understanding of the Qing dynasty cannot be fully attained without mentioning the nature of the Ming Dynasty leading up to its ultimate demise. The Ming Dynasty is characterized by long-lasting tradition and statutory law. Surrounding rulers failed to establish the systematic bureaucracy that China ingrained throughout their society. The Ming Dynasty, however, failed to sustain the infrastructure of their rural counterparts and lost authority over their taxation system as a whole. In this state of vulnerability, the assembly of administrative components coupled with a strong military system prepared the Manchus (Jurchen Tribesmen) to conquer China. Having obtained the support of captured or surrendered Chinese people, the Manchus acquired the tools to expand at a rapid pace. In 1610, the Jurchen Chieftain Nurhaci broke off relations with the Ming and led the Manchus conquest across Chinese territory. After Nurhaci’s death, his 8th grandson succeeded him and officially declared the establishment of the Qing Dynasty. Though the Manchus promised to sustain traditional Chinese values, the Qing Dynasty emerged as a significant transition period for China, where traditional institutions evolved and matured into foundations for the modernization of China. As a reflection of exceptional leadership, the Qing Dynasty established China as a prominent geographic entity, achieved political and socio-cultural prosperity through cross-regional unification, and paved the way for China’s development as an industrial nation-state.
The Manchu leaders provided a framework for the Qing Dynasty to expand their territory and create a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural empire as we know China today. With their policy of Sinicization, the Manchu rulers were able to expand their region and consolidate their people and resources. Having been indoctrinated with militaristic and martial values, the Manchus struggled with accepting the Han belief system. The policy of systematic Sinicization was successful because of China’s deeply rooted cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and societal identity. Ping Ho argues that the best way to implement this policy was by “sponsoring China’s very institutional and cultural system which many Chinese officials viewed as orthodox”. Using China’s institutional belief system as a backbone to converting non-Han ethnic groups highlights the importance of the Qing period as a transition period from a generally traditional society to a more modern version of itself. During the Yu-Cheng period (1723-1735), the systematic Sinicization policy intensified with the same common goal: “to replace the native tribal system with Chinese local administration”. The Manchu conquest ventured across various frontier regions and helped the empire solidify its geographic entity. In discussing the Manchu and their sinicization policy, we can better understand the nature of the Qing dynasty – a devout Confucian state that used their traditional belief system as an instrument for cross-regional unification.
Emperor Kangxi, the Qing Leader from 1654-1722 played a crucial rule in this unification process. During the beginning of his reign, Kangxi’s response to the actions of the “Three Feudatories” is a testament to the emperor’s commitment to loyalty within the bureaucratic system. Kangxi also believed in restoring China’s national examination system, which was held every three years. When Chinese scholars refused to take these exams because of ties to the Ming Dynasty, Kangxi integrated these academics to formulate what is known as “Kangxi’s Dictionary.” In this way, Kangxi “attracted the support of potentially dissident scholars through state-sponsored projects and eased the latent tensions between Manchus and ethnic Chinese in both government posts and society at large”. Kangxi’s brilliance in unifying China extends to his actions regarding Russia. In fear that the Russians would ally with Western Chinese nomadic warriors, the Qing Bureaucrats and Russian leaders signed a treaty between the two sovereign states. This spurred China’s imperial expansion towards Mongolia, Tibet, Turkistan, and Nepal; ultimately, Kangxi’s strategy with foreign affairs during his reign shaped China’s political identity leading up to the Opium War. As a way to facilitate communication between domestic parties, one of Kangxi’s most notable accomplishments was his creation of The Palace Memorial System, a secret communication network between Kangxi and other Qing Bureaucrats. This system invoked a sense of accountability amongst Chinese officials and laid a foundation for commerce and trade in future endeavors. Kangxi received pertinent information regarding grain prices, weather reports, and social affairs in the various local administrations. This system not only unified the country but also made communication more reliable and efficient. Emperor Kangxi’s most notable accomplishments laid the foundation for the modernization of China. In his Valedictory Edict, Kangxi states, “I wish all of you officials to remember that I have been the peace-bearing Son of Heaven for over fifty years and that what I have said to you over and over again is really sincere. Then that will complete this fitting end to my life.” These final last words are merely a reflection of Kangxi’s noble character. The sincerity in Kangxi’s words highlights his deep admiration for China and the type of society he hoped to create.
Though an exceptional leader, Kangxi failed on one aspect of a strong imperial empire: taxation and proper leadership within rural communities. As one of his many innovations, Kangxi sent grants of money to Banner officials, so they could in turn obtain “profits through the entrepreneurial operation.” The idea was that local officials would use their profits from business endeavors to keep their counties stable by relieving communities from infrastructural damages and paying for the salaries of magistrates and their staff. Kangxi’s innovation resulted in the local officials taking in most of the profits for their own personal desires. Consequently, the irresponsible nature of these banner officials led to increasing wealth disparity within rural communities. Kangxi’s struggles with creating a prosperous economy persisted throughout the 18th century. The Qing taxation system was flawed because the revenues from commerce and agriculture were not adequately taxed. During Yongzheng’s brief imperial reign, he made reforms to his father’s taxation policy. In his famous edict, the emperor stated, “When the flesh and blood of the common people are used to rectify the deficits of officials, how can there not be hardship in the countryside? I am deeply concerned about these abuses.” The determined emperor established tax quotas, where the revenues would then be reallocated to benefit rural local officials and magistrates. Yongzheng’s reforms were successful in the northern regions but proved to be a disaster in other regions because of exploitation and disproportionate administrations (More officials than magistrates). Yongzheng’s reforms provided the framework for economic prosperity, but much more progress needed to be done. As Yongzheng’s fourth son, Qianlong was next in line as the Qing Dynasty’s imperial emperor. Known for his military campaigns that spanned across Northeastern China, Qianlong established a new Chinese province, Xinjiang. Qianlong is noted for his taxation policy change which demanded that wealthy provinces were to redistribute their revenue surpluses to poorer communities. The implications of this policy change were that “rich provinces lost the opportunity to take important local initiatives that might have strengthened their government, while poorer provinces lost any incentive to expand their collection system or reform their economic base. ” Local magistrates responded to this policy change by hoarding the surpluses, thereby limiting the amount of money available for other initiatives. These economic pitfalls are just some of the few downfalls of the Qing leading up to the opium war.
Although the Qing Dynasty did not achieve economic prosperity, there are still many reasons why this time period laid the foundation for the modernization of China. We have established that the nature of the Qing Dynasty is characterized by rapid expansion in terms of both increasing the empire’s population by over 300 million people and reimagining the scope of China’s geographic identity. Under the rule of Kangxi, the Qing Dynasty thrived because of their emperor’s political and social mindset. Using the Confucian ideology as a backbone to their imperial rule, the Qing dynasty consolidated its resources and grew the empire far beyond the borders that confined the Ming. The sinicization of non-Han groups allowed the Qing to grow and function across China’s vast geographic mainland. While upholding traditional Chinese values, the Qing Dynasty evolved into a state that valued loyalty, accountability, and growth. The perception of modern China cannot be fully understood without examining their history through a microlens. Taking a step back and viewing China from a macro perspective does not encapsulate the true nature of the Qing dynasty. The Modernization of China originates in the Qing, such that any perception of China based on rudimentary information alone is a distorted one.
Works Cited:
- Chen et. al. The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection, Third Edition. W.W. Norton Company, 2013.
- Ho, Ping-Ti. “The Significance of the Ch'ing Period in Chinese History.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 26, no. 2, 1967, pp. 189–195.
- Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. W.W. Norton Company, 2013.
