The Role of Alexander the Great's Military Successes in the Rise of Macedonia
Factor which heavily contributed to the rise of the Macedonian Empire was Alexander’s military successes, yet to fully understand these successes it is important to understand the role Philip II played. Philip spent his youth in Thebes, a growing power that was challenging the Spartan power. In 371 BC, at Leuctra, the Thebans won against the Spartans and became the dominant power in Greece. The reason for their stunning victory was the military prowess and leadership of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. The reforms made, most notably in the Theban infantry, allowed the military might of Sparta to be matched. Philip quickly learnt and appreciated that professionalism was the key to military supremacy. Furthermore, the Athenian general, Iphicrates also inspired Philip with his weaponry. Upon returning home, Philip revolutionised his army. He inherited a light infantry that were ill-equipped and recruited from the poorly trained peasant class. Philip quickly recruited 4,000 Macedonian levies and equipped them for a new style of war. Philip II introduced many innovations that gave the Macedonian army an advantage over their enemies like reforming the army by establishing the phalanx that was critical in battle. Although Philip innovated and transformed the army in many ways, the most notable of the developments was the sarissa. This deadly new armament was a 4-6-metre-long pike. At one end of this weapon was an iron pike tip. Its streamlined head was designed to penetrate armour and continue through the enemy’s body. At the other end was a heavy metal butt designed to help with balance when holding the sarissa. Ashely describes the effect of the sarissa: “This wall of spears projecting from the phalanx ensured that the opponents would sustain heavy casualties on their approach without being able to inflict any on themselves.” The military might of Macedonia, through its superior arms and formations allowed it to become the superior power. Alexander the Great would later inherit this powerful military and use it to conquer many lands.
Another major step in Macedonia’s rise under Philip was The Third Sacred War in 360 BC. This war was fought between the Delphic Amphictyonic League and the Phocians. The war continued for many years, exhausting the main powers (Thebes and Phocians) that were involved. Philip used this to increase his own power. One main battle which demonstrates Philip’s growing power was the Battle of Crocus Field. Philip won a decisive victory against the Phocians and was able to present himself as a pious avenger. Philip also made major military accomplishments; defeating the Illyrians, Paeonians and the Thracians in less than a decade. The battle which was arguably the most significant was the Battle of Chaeronea. In this battle, Philip defeated Athens and Thebes, thus becoming the undisputed ruler of Greece. Through Philip’s victory and control of the League, Macedonia was able to expand its empire and rise to the top. Alexander inherited a stable and superior empire from his father and was able to use Macedonian’s secure position and military superiority to expand the Macedonian Empire.
Alexander the Great has gone down in history for his amazing military feats and genius tactics. Alexander proclaimed kingship when his father was assassinated in 336 BC. News of Philip’s death encouraged states to revolt and when the news reached Alexander, despite being advised to use diplomatic methods, he chose to muster his cavalry. Alexander began by riding towards Thessaly, where he found the army occupying the pass between two mountains. He had the men ride through Mount Ossa and was at the rear of the Thessalian army when they woke. Alexander continued to ride down towards the Peloponnese and successfully pacify each rebellious state of the kingdom. His Balkan Campaign in 335 BC ensured that his rule in Greece was undisputed. He advanced into Thrace to deal with the revolt in order to safeguard the northern borders before crossing to Asia. While Alexander was triumphantly campaigning in the north; defeating enemies like the Getae tribe and the Illyrians, news reached that Athens and Thebes had revolted once more. Immediately, Alexander responded, crushing the Thebans who resisted, burning the city and cowing Athens into submission. Worthington describes his early campaigns: “In these two months of hard fighting Alexander had proved his fighting prowess and tactical genius.” This left all of Greece under Alexander’s control, allowing him to focus on his campaigns across the Hellespont. This demonstrates how Alexander used military force to firstly secure his position as the ruler before he sought to fulfil his ambitious dreams.
Alexander is most famous for his successful campaign against Persia. The first key battle was fought in 334 BC, not long after Alexander crossed Hellespont. This was The Battle of the Granicus. Alexander and his army were faced by a larger Persian foe after the iconic visit to Troy, where he threw his spear from his ship; signifying he has received Asia from the gods. When the battle began, Alexander sent a portion of his cavalry across the river to the enemy who were keen to engage Alexander. He did this as a feint, and led his elite cavalry – the Companions, against the centre of the Persian line. Alexander emerged victorious following the vicious cavalry fight, marking the beginning of his legendary Persian campaign.
The Battle of Issus the following year was also significant in Alexander’s victory over the Persians. Forced to act due to Alexander’s victory, the Persian king marched from Babylon to confront him. Alexander had fallen ill but recovered and was marching in search of Darius III’s army. Darius’ army had emerged behind Alexander and slaughtered his wounded troops. Alexander quickly turned but was heavily outnumbered as he faced an enemy of around 60,000 – 100,000 while he had only 40,000. Yet Alexander was able to use the narrow landscape of the battlefield to his favour, allowing him to effectively deploy his phalanx. Alexander quickly understood Darius’ army and realised the left wing was an easy target due to its inexperienced soldiers. He led his Companions against the left flank which crumbled, allowing him another victory as the terrified Persians proved ineffective and inaccurate in their attack. Darius, seeing this collapse, fled the battle with his men following. This victory allowed Alexander to take Syria and the city of Tyre after a siege. He then marched to Egypt where he founded the famous city: Alexandria.
Alexander campaigned through Mesopotamia having rejected many peace offers from Darius. In 331 BC he faced another Persian force at Gaugamela. Once again, he was heavily outnumbered by Persia’s force and Darius had an advantage due to the open landscape of the battlefield. Despite the odds being against him, Alexander remained confident and executed a new strategy to defeat his enemy. He rode his troops to the flank, then filtered them back and formed a giant wedge, pushing through the gap created in the middle of the Persians. Gaugamela became a repeat of Issus - seeing this, Darius fled again. Curtius, the Roman historian claims, perhaps rightly so that the Persians lost 40,000 men while the Macedonians lost 100 to 1,200. Alexander entered Babylon, the capital in Mesopotamia, and was proclaimed King of Asia.
After the Battle of Gaugamela, Persian resistance continued. As Alexander marched to Persepolis, he and his army encountered a strong Persian defence called ‘The Persian Gate’ at the end of the valley on the mountain paths of Zagros. Alexander was surprised by the attack from the precipices and ordered his men to retreat – the only time he did so during his life. Alexander soon learned, from a captive, of a pass that bypassed the Persian defence. Alexander and his men attacked the camp from behind as the rest of his force simultaneously attacked from the front. Soon the threat of Darius was over as he was killed by one of his own men. Alexander had successfully taken over the most powerful empire of his time using his military brilliance. This shows the importance of battle and the need for military superiority and leadership in order to grow the Macedonian Empire. Through his military strength, Alexander was able to engage and conquer his enemies, growing his empire. Without his military prowess and the innovations of Philip II, the Macedonian army and Empire would not have become the superior might it came to be.
