The Singaporean Model Of Drug Control

Background

The Philippines is known as a drug infested country which still has over thousands of drug users at present. With the government’s efforts on the problem, the drug rates have dropped not so significantly. In 2011 a total of 2,748 drug users and abusers were recorded, the number continued to increase until it reached a total of 5,648 in 2016 (Dangerous Drugs Board, 2017). This has many implications. (1) The law that the Philippines is practicing is not enough and effective (2) The People of the Philippines is not that disciplined (3) we need to take bigger steps in order to decrease the number of drug users and abusersFrom July 1 to August 28, or roughly the first two months of President Duterte’s term in office, 20,584 minors have surrendered to local police offices, according to the Philippine National Police’s Women and Children Protection Center (WCPC). Surprisingly, nearly 30 percent of the minors who gave themselves up did not even have files with the police. Some 65 percent or more than 13,000 had previous records with the police as “first-time offenders” while about eight percent or 1,595 were repeat offenders.

More than 98 percent of these minor surrenderees admitted to being drug users, while only 273 or 1. 33 percent surrendered as drug pushers or sellers, and 66 (0. 32 percent) as drug couriers or runners. Of this total, 3,971 were children from Central Visayas. Northern Mindanao, meanwhile, has the second highest number of children drug surrenderees at 3,783. Zamboanga region came in for third with 2,196. The PNP tally of minor surrenderees, by the other administrative regions of the country, from July 1 to August 28, 2016 follows: Davao Region (1,988), Caraga (1,821), Soccsksargen (953), Negros Island (729), Bicol Region (719), Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (696), Eastern Visayas (642), Calabarzon (534), Cagayan Valley (511), Central Luzon (479), Western Visayas (408) Ilocos Region (387), Metro Manila (276), and Cordillera Administrative Region (228) (Lucero, 2016). This implies that the population of drug users and abusers is really big. These arguments led the researchers to their research problem. The researchers saw the flaws in the actions that the government is taking. The Philippines, not only the government but the people itself need to improve, the researchers thought that the system in the Philippines needs to be improved.

During the war-on-drug operations the conducted by Philippine police, there have been many reports of extrajudicial killings alongside the operations. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) data indicates that police operations resulted in the deaths of 3,906 suspected drug users and dealers from July 1, 2016, to September 26, 2017. But unidentified gunmen have killed thousands more, bringing the total death toll to more than 12,000, according to credible media reports (Human Rights Watch, 2018). This is a major retrogression for the anti-drug campaign and for the entire country. The researchers will neither propose nor impose a new law or bill, but will make compromises based on one country that practices effective drug law, and has disciplined citizens. During the 1800s Singapore was a drug infested country, drugs were just part of the lifestyle of the people, but in the beginning of the 1900s Singapore started their war on drugs by the use of the Singapore anti opium society (Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, 2018) since then, the country of Singapore has been practicing very effective laws to minimize drug use on its borders, making drug laws in Singapore: the strictest in the planet (Aquino, 2018).

According to data. gov. sg, in 2011, a total of 3,326 drug users and abusers were recorded, the number though sometimes it increases, managed to drop to a total of 3,091 users and abusers. This implies that their law is effective because there is a decrease in the number of drug users and abusers.

Rationale

The fundamental reason for this research is because with the action of the government, still, the population of drug users and abusers is getting really huge. The huge population of drug users and abusers means that the system has its flaws. Philippines, which is still a drug infested country, needs to have a better and improved system in dealing with drugs. The researchers also realized that there is an urgent need to educate people as to the dangers of drug use, and there is also a great need to help those who are already addicted to escape their misery.

Current State in the Field

The Asian countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia all practice the mandatory death penalty though they vary in implementation. In Malaysia, the government has the full power to execute any person found trafficking or in possession of drugs, and for couriers, death sentences are often imposed. Although they have a strict implementation of the law, 18 Malaysians were caught trying to smuggle drugs into the country in March 2016. In contrary, Thailand (The Cabin Singapore, 2016)The United States drug control focuses on four main points in combatting drug abuse. (1) Creating a national system to strengthen drug prevention at a community level. For example, additional funds are given annually to states that campaign against drugs. (2) Strengthened efforts for the youth. Conducting campaign programs effective at schools and homes where the youth spend most of their time at. (3) Proper information dissemination on drug use. The US has expanded their research on the health risk of substance use and informing these researches to the public. (4) Collaborations of the criminal justice agencies and prevention campaigns. The Federal bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Community Outreach Program (COP) lets the public help in ways for them to be responsive. (Executive Office of the President of the United States, 2014)According to the United Nations the international drug controls in the recent century (1909-2009), have reduced the number of drug abusers. Through the combined efforts of countries to eradicate drugs, statistics show that the combined prevalence rates of opiate, cocaine and ATS have declined from 1. 5% to less than 1%, in the global level for the century (2006/7), which was a 40%decline. (Pietschmann, Tullis, & Leggett, 2009)

Problem in the Field

The researchers have observed numerous problems in current war on drugs in the Philippines. The law in terms of drug use in the country has not been significantly effective in the past, before the current president Duterte made the war on drugs his priority, even in the beginning of his presidency. With the current implementation of the war on drugs, it has become a massacre for the poor, while the drug lords remain uncaught. The numerous extrajudicial killings of combined guilty and innocent people has risen to more than twelve thousand. Also, it focuses primarily on the eradication of drugs while it lacks effort in the rehabilitation of these drug users.

Synthesis

The review of the related literature and studies divulged the vast implications of the war on drugs in the Philippines and the drug law in Singapore which has become globally known for having one of the strictest penalties regarding the possession of illegal drugs. The war on drugs on the Philippines started when President Duterte took his place as the 16th President of the Philippines. The war on drugs in the Philippines is morally and legally unjustifiable that results to egregious and large scale violations of human rights (Feldab-Brown, 2017). A study made by Dr. Lance L. Simpson said that people who commit crimes while under the influence of drugs behave differently from those who commit the same crime while not under the influence of drugs. This is the reason why President Rodrigo Duterte has ordered the police to end drug addiction in the Philippines by conducting operations that will rehabilitate those people who are using illicit drugs. The Philippine President promised to pursue the drug war despite the many people have been killed in what the Philippine National Police (PNP) calls lawful anti-drug operations, alleging that the suspects fought back during raid (Conde, 2018). The ensuing battles were bloody and the killings were complicated. These were the realities criticized by human rights activists, political opportunists, and international critics. Despite the mass surrenders and sharp decrease in drug operations, it was the offensives of state forces against criminals and suspects shorthand for vigilante killings. (Domingo-Almase, 2017)) The President has called for the reinstatement of the death penalty in the country (Zamnesia, 2017).

While some hails Singapore as a benchmark to follow in regard to combating illicit drugs, Singapore’s drug law altered slightly for the convenience and the approval of human rights advocates. (Ministry of Commuications and Information [SG], 2017) Singapore’s approach to combating drug trafficking has traditionally entailed the use of capital punishment. According to Amnesty International, over the last two decades Singapore has hanged hundreds of people including dozens of foreigners for narcotics offences. (Phnea, 2013) As far as harsh drug laws are concerned, Singapore has some of the toughest on the books. (Aquino, Tripsavvy, 2018) It has completed a review of the mandatory death penalty for all its laws. (Saad & Ramesh, 2012) Singapore responds to the increase of new young abusers through a preventive drug education toolkit for educators and youth counsellor. (TODAY Online - Almost 70% of new drug abusers under age 30, 2016)Public education against drug abuse starts in schools. (Teo, 2010) The country was known for some of the world’s most stringent drug laws, aims to develop medical treatments containing synthetic elements of the cannabis, or marijuana, plant. (Chandran, 2018) Singapore’s ‘zero tolerance approach’ to drugs has been well- established. (Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, 2018) The Singaporean police are given the right to subject everyone within Singapore for a urine test. If the subjected refuses to be examined by the police they are punishable by law. (Singapore Legal Advice, 2011) The implementation of the Singapore drug law continues to maintain a low drug rate (ASEAN Narcotics Coorporation Center, 2017). According to UN World Drug Report, Singapore has the lowest level of drug abuse in the world. (BBC, 2013) The threat of drug problem cannot be simply miscalculated. Obviously, it is a global concern. Apparently, the wrath of illicit drug activities is universal thus it did not spare the country. (Cerado & Cielito E. Llano, 2015)

Research Gap

The review of related literature and studies showed similarities and relatedness to the present endeavour. The related literature that the researchers found was able to explain the Singaporean and Philippine model of drug war and they were able to provide weaknesses and strengths of each. They mostly focus on the quantitative information that is related in this study. Thus this research shall bridge the gap between the quantitative data found and interpret them into a qualitative study which aims to construct a new framework. The said related literature and studies have only stated the strengths and weaknesses of Philipines’ and Singapore’s drug laws. They were not able to provide any critic or ways on how to fix such laws. In this research the researchers will state, critic, reconstruct and create a new framework regarding the two models.

Theoretical Considerations

According to the availability-proneness theory of drug abuse, drug abuse occurs when a prone individual is exposed to a high level of availability. It said that the availability or ease of access to drugs varies, as well as proneness due to social or psychological reasons. Availability and proneness varies directly with the tendency to use drugs which when added results to addiction tendency. This means that sometimes, when there is high level of availability, it is possible to get a lower level of proneness and vice versa. Also, it is stated in this theory that the treatment of drug abusers is successful if, and only if large reduction of availability and proneness are made, when availability and proneness becomes acceptable to the drug user or abuser, and it remains constant, there will be a continuation of drug use, If there are relapses after the treatment has been done, they should be able to return to the earlier levels of availability or proneness. In this theory, several concepts on availability were stated. Availability is the physical, social, and economic circumstances that affect the way to obtain drugs, especially the cost and work required to obtain them. This means that if the costs of drugs are high and it requires great effort to be obtained, there is a low chance of drug use and abuse but can be contradicted by the level of proneness a person has. In the Social aspect of availability, drugs can be available in some social groups, but not in others.

For example, if drugs are used by the majority of social groups such as in school or in the neighbourhood, the availability of drugs for person who is new to this kind of environment is high. Availability may be “perceived” as well as “actual. ” Perceived availability includes the cost of drugs, the number of sellers and places associated with drugs. This also includes subjective estimates of that availability by users or nonusers. Actual availability depends on the subjective estimates because it is unknown. There are several studies and researches that support this part of the theory: A study by high school students by Smart (1977) which states that that perceived availability was a significant predictor for four of six drugs--cannabis, heroin, alcohol, and tobacco, but not LSD or non- prescribed tranquilizers. The studies of professional and medical addicts were used for support. Since doctors, nurses, and pharmacist have regular contact with drugs in their work setting, they have greater rates of opiate than other professions, but they recover faster than addicts. In the family setting, availability is greater. It is said that to be able to keep the supply of drugs, heroin addicts interacts with other addicts. The availability of heroin in ghetto situations is high and young men are usually the consumers, but few become addicts, those who become addicts sacrifice their friends who are non-users. In a family, drugs are used by more than one family member (Smart and Fejer 1972; Kandel 1974). Their spouses start using heroin, when entering the marriage.

Proneness

There are many types of proneness. According to studies, before addiction, psychological problems occur mostly in opiate addicts, such as: impulsivity, psychopathic or 47 sociopathic traits, low tolerance for frustration, weak ego functions, borderline schizophrenia (in some cases), depression, and alienation. Not only opiate addiction but also other types of drug abuse became the coping mechanism for dealing with the said psychological problems. A type of proneness exists particularly in ghetto situations. Drugs became their gateway to a life that is well paid, prestigious, and exciting compared to legitimate opportunities. (Catton and Shain [1976]). Heroin addicts are more goal oriented because of this, heroin addicts are prone to frustrations when they fail to do so. This results to the “social psychological” type of proneness. (Glaser et al. 1971) Except from wanting to escape reality, they also want to seek a lifestyle with a sense of purpose, group belonging, and excitement. Seeking legitimate lifestyles is hard for ghetto dwellers that have poor educational attainment. The availability of heroin and drugs makes a person prone to have interest in them, use them, and may become addict-dealers, and to the extent of becoming criminals if heroin is not available, so that they can achieve the lifestyle that they want. Proneness as seeking for a new lifestyle explains ghetto heroin addiction but not professional or medical addiction. There is no change in lifestyle in professional addiction and also there is no group belonging and a little excitement when obtaining drugs. This is called “psychological deficit” depression, anxiety, or a sense of frustration which are “treated” by this drug. Since professionals are exposed to a high level of availability, they have a low level of proneness.

Strengths of the Theory

The theory only has two factors. The propositions made by this research are easily understood. This theory can branch into some discoveries that concern the habits and lives of addicts and can make particular predictions can be make about a variety of phenomena. The theory covers the totality of drug usage. The propositions made in this theory suite any type of drug that can be used or abused. The theory has a high level of validity and can be tested empirically. The theory can be linked with has a theory of alcoholism and other social problems, such as criminality. It explains drug use in an individual, family, and peer groups and its reason for poor recovery. The theory tackles both “street” and professional or medical addiction. The theory tackles both the “escapist” and “seeking” aspects of drug use and its importanceThis theory provides methods that can be used to prevent and reduce availability and proneness.

Weaknesses of the Theory

This theory is not independent. The global concepts of “availability” and “proneness” are the ones stated There is a physical analogy of this theory, imagine a hydraulic pump where there is high availability but proneness doesn’t need to be. The opium farmers in Turkey and Mexico do not tend to use it. This is one situation in which availability is high but, with low proneness. But it can’t be generalized. Mathematical expressions of the contribution of the availability and proneness are needed. Actual Availability is unknown. This theory is related to this research in such a way that it provides proof and supports the main objective of the majority of drug laws which is to eradicate the drugs itself and not the person who uses and abuse it. (Smart, 1980)Another theory that the researchers will use is Hirschi’s social control theory. It focuses on deviant behaviours such as theft, vandalism, and especially drug use. Though it does not address how drug use turns into drug abuse, unlike any other theories, it explains the origin of such deviance. Hirschi began his theory by assuming that unless people are actively prevented from doing such act, people would still violate norms and laws. Effective socialization is needed in order for the prevention to be effective.

Hirschi was able to determine three groups that have the most impact on each person. An establishment with strong moral bond between the young and the society, relatable, have a simple behaviour, involved in simple activities, and believes in the moral order and law, promotes conformity and prevents delinquency. The four elements of critical moral bond between the individual and society are as follows: attachment, commitment, involvement and belief which serve as a protection against deviance. According to Hirschi, the outcome of the ineffective ties with these elements is the so called delinquent behaviours which include drug use. The social control theory gives emphasis to attachment to conventional others or being relatable. The main cause of deviant behaviours is ineffective bonding with parents, which results to low self-control, which affects the ability of a person to determine accurately the consequence of his or her action (Gottfredson and Hirschi). Since Hirschi believes that everyone is capable of criminality, His theory proposes that the ones who find it difficult to resist have low self-control. This theory is related to this research in such a way that it will enable the researchers to make a people friendly framework which is different from others. (Davies)