A Discussion Of Whether Suicide Terrorism Can Be Considered Rational
Whether or not suicide terrorism can be considered rational has long been the topic of debate amongst scholars and experts, particularly in relation to factors of influence. This essay will argue that the choice to utilise suicide as a terror tactic is made from a strategic, rational perspective. Examining the motivations behind suicide terrorism through the lens of the rational choice theory suggests that when voluntary, both organizations and individuals engage in attacks as a method of achieving a particular goal. Suicide bombings have been increasingly used by terrorist groups since the 1990s, specifically as it is one of the most lethal, disastrous forms of terrorism. Since 1991, suicide bombings have claimed over 37,000 lives and injured more than 102,000 people. Bombings are conducted by terror organizations with different goals and ideologies for varying motivations, ranging from societal benefits and status, and to a lesser extent, perceived religious rewards. This essay will also provide case studies of both secular and non-secular actors, through two well known terrorist organizations, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), and Al Qaeda.
When understanding how the decision to participate in suicide terrorism can be considered a rational act, it is important to examine how it can be related to the rational choice theory. The rational choice theory is a framework commonly used by scholars and researchers to understand the link between social behaviour and decision making processes. This particular theory is built off the idea that when faced with a problem or decision, any given individual is most likely to choose the behaviour, choice or action that their own self interest most strongly aligns with. In other words, the main goal of a person will most frequently be to seek a means of achieving an end. In the context of suicide terrorism, this behavioural pattern can be strongly observed. Suicide terror attacks are rarely random events; they generally occur as a result of a bigger campaign that an organization has conducted to achieve their own mission or goals. Even under the occasional circumstance where the motivation behind the participation of suicide attackers themselves can be considered irrational, the masterminds who employ them are not. The targets of suicide attacks are often high value authority figures, carefully selected by terrorist leaders in order to increase the success and consequences of the mission. In comparison to other terror tactics, suicide assignments are often employed due to their proven effectiveness, resulting in between four and thirteen times as many victims as has been observed in non-suicide attacks. In addition, the violence and randomness of suicide bombings brings a higher level of attention to the organization and cause, as well as ingraining fear in the affected community. In the case of the motivations of the individual attacker to participate in suicide missions, the rational choice theory can still be applied. Attackers rarely choose to participate in suicide terrorism to be altruistic or selfless, instead they are usually influenced by factors that influence regular criminal activity such as their own ego, hedonistic values or perceived benefits. Depending on the individual and organization they are employed by, these benefits can be either of secular or non secular value. In contrast, critics of the rational choice theory and it’s application to suicide terrorism have long argued that psychological issues caused by low-income, lack of education or dysfunctional family problems are the leading cause of individuals’ participation in suicide terrorism. However, these psychological explanations have been contradicted by the wide range of socio-economic backgrounds and mental health statuses observed in bombers. A study conducted by Hassan involved 250 interviews with future attackers, the families of deceased attackers and discovered that the bombers being studied came from a range of classes and backgrounds, very few lived in poverty, were uneducated or had previous mental health issues. This provides further confirmation of how the rational choice theory is applicable to suicide terrorism, as it suggests they did not participate as a part of an irrational, impulsive decision and instead chose to participate as a method for fulfilling egoistic interests.
Founded in 1976 in Sri Lanka, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) are a radical insurgency organization with the goal of securing the independent state of Tamil Eelam in North and East Sri Lanka. The insurgency began due to a series of anti Tamil policies created by the Sri Lankan government that reduced employment and education opportunities and instead provided them to the Sinhalese majority group. These policies were designed to disempower the Tamil minority population, and included the banning of imported magazines, books and movies in the Tamil Language, as well as sponsoring and establishing settlement developments for the Sinhalese people in areas that were traditionally populated by Tamils. The LTTE were the most powerful militant insurgency organization in Sri Lanka for almost thirty years, with the majority of their initial attacks targeting high profile political authority figures such as Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi who was assassinated by the LTTE via a suicide bombing attack in 1991. Due to the LTTE’s secular Marxist and Lenist perspectives, many Tamils joined the organization due to their own nationalist perspectives and a desire for revenge on the Sri Lankan government. As a result, they provide a strong contradiction to the commonly held myth that suicide attacks are only conducted for religious purpose. During their peak, the LTTE became notorious in their use of suicide terrorism, particularly as between the years of 1980 to 2001, 76 of the 186 terrorist attacks were attributed to them. Their suicide attackers were part of an elite group called the Black Tigers, which was made up of exceptionally qualified LTTE members who were carefully recruited from traditional military corps. Black Tigers were considered to be of a special status, being chosen solely based on their expertise, previous history of successes in other military campaigns, psychological stability and family backgrounds. The LTTE were also notorious for their use of women in suicide terrorism. The utilization of women for suicide attacks was a strategic, rationally calculated choice, particularly as women typically arouse minimal suspicious and have the capability to hide bombs in their clothing or through their ability to appear pregnant. Women in suicide terrorism was common in LTTE missions, with 30-40% of their attacks being carried out by female suicide bombers.
It can be argued that secular influences are the strongest motivators behind an individual’s decision to participate in suicide terrorism. In particular, many suicide attackers wish to achieve a particular goal, whether that is to gain possible societal benefits or to achieve revenge on a group, government or person. It has been frequently theorized that individuals who participate in suicide terrorism possess an extreme, radical desire to engage in reciprocal violence or pursue revenge for perceived personal grievances or humiliations, or those against close friends and family. Interrogations of unsuccessful would-be suicide terrorists, as well as many suicide letters or video recordings revealed aspirations to avenge past injustices or wrongdoings. This can be observed in particular in the case study organization the LTTE, as not only was the one of primary purposes of suicide missions revenge on the Sri Lankan government, but many later missions were also created with the intent of terrorizing the Sinhalese population they felt were oppressing them. One of the other stronger motivations for individuals to participate in suicide terrorism is the societal benefits that may be awarded to them or their family after death. In some communities and social networks, martyrdom is associated with heroism, and so individuals living within these networks may be encouraged to participate in suicide terrorism to be perceived as a hero or gain respect for their family. This particular concept is also reflected strongly in the LTTE, as their elite suicide bomber squadron, the Black Tigers are considered to be of special status and regarded with high respect. The LTTE’s suicide bombers such as the Black Tigers are marketed as being brave champions, with the anniversary of their first suicide attack being celebrated each year. In these celebrations, Black Tigers are glorified using music, videos and images.
The second case study organization to be examined is Al Qaeda, a militant terrorist cell established in 1988. Al Qaeda operates as part of an Islamic extremist and Salafi jihadist movement with the goal of removing all influences from foreign cultures and nations in Muslim countries. They have conducted many famous transnational suicide terrorism missions including the 2002 Bali bombings and the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. While there was a long list of motives behind the 9/11 suicide mission, the primary goal was to put pressure on the United States to withdraw from the Saudi Arabian Peninsula, where it was claimed troops humiliated and terrorized locals. As one of the most tragic, disastrous terrorist events in history, the attack on the World Trade Center, claiming the lives of 2,977 people and injuring an estimated 6,000 more. While Al Qaeda utilises other terror tactics over suicide, the media coverage and attention given to the 9/11 attacks influenced similar suicide missions to be conducted by other organizations, with a significant increase in the numbers of suicide missions being observed across the globe. Despite the fact that these large-scale attacks on Western society are the ones that have gained the most publicity, AQ’s suicide bombings most commonly attack Iraqi civilians.
The link between religion and suicide bombing as been of wide debate, with some scholars claiming that suicide attacks are rarely influenced by religious factors. As a secular organization with no religious influence, the case study of the LTTE reinforces this point. However, techniques used by religious terrorist groups to recruit possible suicide attackers suggests that religion is still a major influence on the willingness of the individual to participate. As the Quran forbids suicide and Muslim people around the world discourage it, some Islamic terror cells have attempted to rebrand suicide attacks as martyr missions, warping religious teachings and indoctrinating children from a young age to see its morality. Al Qaeda is an example of this, with martyrdom being a central point of their ideology, and leaders twisting the meaning of Quran verses to imply that any individual risking their life to support the Salafi jihadist mission is commended by God. In this circumstance, martyrs are socially categorized between heroes and saints. In addition, suicide attackers may be persuaded by the belief that their participation in the mission is decided by God, with heavenly paradise rewards waiting for them after completion of the attack. While nationalism and societal factors are generally the primary motivator behind attacks, these heavenly rewards provide a consolation or bonus. While the majority of studies on the link between religion and suicide terrorism focus on Islamic cells, suicide terrorists come from a variety of religions, with cases also being observed of Christians, Buddhists, Shintoists and Hindus also being associated with attacks.
It can be concluded that the decision to engage in suicide terrorism is a rational, strategic choice motivated by a variety factors. Through an application of the rational choice theory it can be observed that possible suicide attackers and organizations will frequently utilize suicide terrorism as a method of achieving an aim. These aims vary depending on the ideologies and beliefs of the individual, ranging from a desire for revenge or to avenge an injustice, to being perceived as a martyr or hero. As can be observed in the case studies of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and Al Qaeda, there is no singular motivation behind engaging in suicide terrorism; some groups choose to participate based on religious values, while others instead are secular, with strong nationalistic perspectives.
