Solid Conceptual Ideas Of Witchcraft In 15Th Century Western Europe

Five hundred and seventy-two years ago in the town of Todi, Italy, a woman named Matteuccia Francisci of the village of Ripabianca was charged and executed for witchcraft. This case is one of the earliest recorded trials in Europe and as a result of this, questions about the origins of witchcraft and who shaped its understanding, come about. To understand how the conception of magic, and in turn witchcraft, came to be, it is imperative to look, analyze, and piece together the complex history behind it. The majority of witch trials that took place in Western Europe occured in modern day Great Britain, France, especially in areas surrounding Brittany and Normandy, as well as parts of Italy, and modern day Germany. There were, of course, other areas where persecution occurred, but within the region of Western Europe, this is where the famous witch craze ran rampant. “The fully developed concept of witchcraft that held force only throughout the years of the great European witch-hunts appeared only in early fifteenth century, emerging from trials for heresy and sorcery…This new concept was rooted, to be sure, in far older ideas of maleficent magic common in western european culture…”. In Bailey’s book, he clearly separates the concepts of witchcraft and sorcery. While the concept of witches goes back to biblical times, what was understood as a witch changed over time. In turn, clerical authorities viewpoint on the legitimacy of demons and witches changed as well. For example, in 420 C. E. Saint Augustine stated, “that demons and witches could not function under the face of God. ” This concept was widely accepted until 1237, when Thomas Aquinas said “that dangerous demons and witches are roaming the country. ”

Within the early 15th century, there was a great deal of concern regarding harmful sorcery within the Roman Catholic Church. At its core, sorcery differs from witchcraft because of the intent and extent a person is willing to go to accomplish their goal. The idea of sorcery is based in performing harmful magic, but witchcraft goes a step further. Witchcraft ties into the concept of maleficium which is a harmful deed completed by the implication of magic. It is similar to sorcery, but is considered much darker and malevolent. Those practicing witchcraft were not only seen as using demonic agents to fulfil their agendas, but committing apostasy, rejection of their faith and soul, to complete the work of Satan. When trials for sorcery first came about in Western Europe, the sorcerers were seen as victims, not perpetrators. It was believed that Satan’s deception lead them to stray from their Godly path, and as a result, they should be punished with penance and correction to remedy their mistakes. But as the new concept of witchcraft emerged in which an individual willingly commits the seemingly ultimate crime against God, the execution of the accused was now permitted. Proceeding the 15th century, there was a rise in interest in alchemy, astrology, and spiritual and demonic magic that crept into the mainly religious, scholarly world of Western Europe. These areas threatened and intrigued many educated members of society. The rise in interest within these fields gave way to the conception of clerical necromancy, which gravely threatened the legitimacy of the Roman Catholic Church. It was so pervasive that priests, dukes, princes, and kings dabbled with this kind of magic. As a result, the church became convinced that all magic, regardless of its intention, needed to be stopped. The church’s concern with necromancy further extended to common magic, such as the creation of love potions and fertility spells, as the two terms were continuously conflated by clerical authorities.

Clerical Necromancy required literacy, training, obscure objects that represented some sort of evil purpose, while common magic consisted of everything from herbs to enchantments. The earliest conflation of these terms dates back to the 14th century, where Pontificate John XXII expressed great concern over the fact that a great deal of ecclesial members were practicing magic. This original conflation lead to everyday people being tried under the same crimes of necromancy, even though these crimes these people were being accused of were completely different. This conflation by ecclesiastical members is what ultimately gave way to the conception of witchcraft. Soon after Pontificate John XXII’s original conflation, Bernard Gui, a French Inquisitor, wrote a summation of his experiences which influenced witch hunters for years to come. He wrote about the demonic nature of necromancy, but also about everyday spells, charms, and potions that helped bridge the gap between these two separate forms of perceived magic. The next theologian that had a great impact on solidifying the conception of witchcraft was Nicholas Eymeric. Inquisitor General to the Crown of Aragon, his most influential findings were based on the fact that he believed that Demonic Invocation was inherently heretical. He believed that the Apostasy was heretical. Whether or not their was the explicit adoration of demons, it was implicitly there. Any demonic invocation under his interpretation was wrong.

This not only solidified the idea that all magic, because it was inherently heretical, was wrong, but that all people who were accused of magic, contrary to original interpretations, deserve to die for their crimes. Nicholas Eymeric beliefs changed the way witchcraft would ultimately be viewed, and solidified the concept of apostasy as being an inherent part of magic, which in turn lead to the possibility of the execution of the accused. Additionally Bernard Gui and Nicholas Eymeric shaped the idea of the diabolical sabbath which includes the famous image of women riding into the night. This extremely important because their beliefs are what largely shaped the perception of witches, and as a result, witchcraft. Especially when analyzing Eymeric’s works, it becomes clear that the presentation of women as the invokers of demonic agencies and worshipers of the Devil largely contributed to this perception. The formation of these ideologies resulted in an an increase of trials for maleficium, which would become known as witchcraft, within the 15th century.

Since clerical authorities had solid conceptual ideas of sorcery which fit into magical crimes, the ultimate formation of the conception of witchcraft in the 15th century was built on preconceived ideas. These ideals were continuously solidified by the work of Johannes Nider, a German theologian from the 15th century who wrote and later published one of the first major books discussing witchcraft as a crime on a large scale. In fact, Formicarius, Nider’s book, is considered one of the most influential works on the subject of witchcraft. So influential that it gave way to another important work regarding witchcraft in the late 15th century: Malleus Maleficarum. One of the reasons Nider’s work is considered monumental to the concretion of the perception of magic is because he added to the already negative view of witchcraft and necromancy within the church. The main example of this would be seen in Preceptorium divine legis, another book by Johannes Nider, in which he talks about the act of magic being a violation of the first commandment, as he views the act of magic as a direct disobedience to God’s teachings. This is an extremely important point of Nider’s book because while engaging in maleficium was already seen as a direct act against God based on Eymeric teachings, the idea of disobeying God’s first and most important commandment further strengthened the idea that witchcraft was the antithesis of goodness.

An additional shift which is of utmost importance is that in Nider’s work, he addresses the concept of, “Common Magic’. Like Bernard Gui, he was one of the earliest theologians to make the distinction between the different kinds of magic, but unlike him, Nider further tied together his condemnation of all magic under the ideal that it was a sin and a direct disobedience to the first commandment. This is extremely important because these two different kinds of magic, necromancy and common magic were practiced by completely different people. Necromancy required precious stones, mirrors, and a deep understanding of old litterature, not accessible or even remotely possible for the masses of people with absolutely no education or money who relied on common magic to aid themselves. This connection of these two different kinds of magic, and therefore witchcraft, created a united front against all magically forms at the time. Nider’s other ideas about witchcraft prevalent throughout his book, Formicarius, were the idea that demonic agencies were bound to a witch. Additionally, Johannes Nider reinforced the idea of witches being conspirators and active participants in malicious deeds.

In From Sorcery to Witchcraft: Clerical Conceptions of Magic in the Later Middle Ages, historian Michael D. Bailey explains Nider’s viewpoint by saying, “Witches were believed to have entered into total apostasy from the faith and to have given themselves over body and soul to Satan. They were therefore not just individuals possessing harmful supernatural powers but members of a conspiratorial satanic cult. ” In another of Bailey’s works, Battling Demons: Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages, he further explains the free and interpretive manner that Johannes Nider used in recording Peter of Bern’s witch trial in which a great witch, also known as a grandis maleficus, is tried for murdering children in the womb. Called Staedelin, the account represents an interesting interpretation of the event that occurred as skewed the story in his favor to illustrate his perception of the demonic nature of all magic. Yet interestingly enough, this account represents, when analyzing, a clear understanding that the Staedelin’s work was through the belief of common magic, yet the continued conflation of the terms between necromancy and common magic continue.

Another interesting fact that sticks out within this version of the account is that within Nider’s time, he himself believed that women, not men were more “inclined towards witchcraft”, yet Staedelin in Peter of Bern’s trial is a man. Before the 15th century, the majority of witches on trial were men, as they were the educated elites who could engage in such activities that required literacy and wealth, but as time went on, women began to be viewed as more prone to committing acts of evil as they were viewed as more submissive and servile, prone to corruption by dark forces. The belief that more women were prone to commit these acts lead to the creation of Heinrich Kramer’s Malleus Maleficarum at the end of the 15th century. This highly misogynistic book stated that women were the main perpetrators of evil because women, unlike men, are ‘spiritually weak’. In Kramer’s view, women were more likely to engage in such malevolent activities because of their ‘spiritual weakness’ and ‘subservient nature’ that made them extremely likely to selling their soul to the devil and dedicate their life to sinister ordeals.

While the belief that clerical figures like Pontificate John XXII, Bernard Gui, Nicholas Eymeric, Johannes Nider, and Heinrich Kramer made a great impact on the ultimate conception of witchcraft would not be one hundred percent false, it would not be one hundred percent true either. When analyzing the works of these clerical figures, it is clear that they built on top of each others ideas to create a complex, amorphous definition of what witchcraft is. But it does not however conclusively form a great understanding of why there was that constant conflation of terms between necromancy and common magic because when analyzed, they are clearly different in practice. Additionally, at a time where the transportation of ideas across great distances was exceedingly difficult, the probability that these clerical authorities would have a great deal of influence across the Catholic world at that time is highly unlikely. Their work obviously aided in the way educated elites viewed all types of magic, as they were the only people able to read their work at the time, but there is a clear disconnect between how their manuscripts would aid the understanding of people who were not literate. Additionally, this lack of concrete connection between the educated clerical elite and common folk becomes apparent when examining the Todi Witch Trial of 1428. The translated record of the Todi Witch Trial, follows a pattern where Matteuccia Francisci’s crimes are listed in an order of least to greatest importance.

From the time of 1426-1428, Matteuccia Francisci was accused of creating love potions, tending to those who have fallen ill, and aiding those suffering from possession. But as the course of the legal document continues, the language used to describe how she accomplished those deeds becomes darker. At the beginning, Matteuccia Francisci is recorded saying prayers and hymns to aid those she attends to, but as stated before the language changes. For example, a woman came to Matteuccia Francisci to ask her help because her priest would not have sex with her. Matteuccia allegedly created a wax figurine for her to use as she recited, “As this wax melts, so may my love’s heart melt until he does my will. ” Matteuccia also aided a woman who suffered from an abusive relationship by telling her to give her husband Horsetail to drive him insane. These acts are organized to become darker and darker as they go on to ‘prove’ that Matteuccia Francisci deserved to die for her crimes. Later within the legal treatise, Matteuccia Francisci is accused of going out into the night to convene with other witches and demons, as well as following the orders of Lucifer by going out at night and sucking the blood of babies.

Matteuccia Francisci admitted to her crimes, most likely under duress as most trials were at that time. While there is extreme bias within the trial, as well as the fact that a well known Friar, Bernardino of Siena, was in the area around that time preaching his hatred of witches, the actual legal context of the ruling was made by a somewhat secular court. There is however, conflicting evidence on the subject, as some records of the trial date her crimes “Before the coming of Friar Bernardino”. This would suggest that Bernardino of Siena’s teachings had a lasting impact on the village of Todi, as his name being used within a legal document would suggest that his preachings “opened the town’s eyes to the grave ‘danger’ this woman represented, a woman who apparently until that point had been peacefully tolerated, and, indeed, actively patronized by her neighbors and by clients from near and far”. Yet records of this are still conflicting, so Bernardino of Siena’s true influence can not be definitively determined.

That is not to say that the court was not influenced by Bernardino of Siena’s teachings, but the extent of which his teachings influenced the outcome of trial are inconclusive. Nevertheless, this trial illustrates and interesting anomaly not found within the majority of other records of witchcraft. This trial occured before the publication of the most influential works written by Johannes Nider and Heinrich Kramer, whose works only examine the viewpoint of educated clerical elites. But in this trial, the viewpoints of the people who came forward and accused her, Matteuccia Francisci of the village of Ripabianca, of witchcraft are present. Within this Trial, the numerous people who Matteuccia Francisci treated were recorded. The reason they went there and the treatment Matteuccia prescribed lies within this document. The majority of her clientele were women seeking help, whether it be through love potions or aiding women who were beaten by their husbands or lovers. If Friar Bernardino had a true impact, it could suggest that her clientele turned on Matteuccia Francisci because they feared damnation for turning to a ‘witch’ for aid and feared the civil consequences preached by the Friar and later accepted by the bureaucrats of Todi. Yet seeing as the majority of her clientele were seeking retribution against their lovers or husbands who abused them, it is quite possible that it was the men, not the women, were angry for the treatment prescribed by Matteuccia. For example, the women she prescribed horsetail to in order to drive her husband insane was most likely not happy with the fact that his wife consulted a ‘witch’ who gave her a poisonous herb to drive him mad. This incident, combined with multiple factors could have influenced the ultimate trial and execution of Matteuccia Francisci. This trial record illustrates a unique peculiarity, one that combines the ideologies of the church (but to what extent unknown), the sentencing made by the bureaucrats, and the citizens who both went to Matteuccia for aid and feared her. Yet the non-clerical experience of witchcraft is not limited to this singular case.

Within Robin Briggs’ Witches and Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft, how the idea of witchcraft within the purview of common folk were analyzed. “Fear of Witchcraft waxed and waned at both communal and the personal levels according to circumstances. Devastating weather, plagues of insects, epidemics of animal disease and similar misfortunes might arouse villages or larger regions to the peak of anxiety”. This was not always true as waves of persecution did not always correlate with this, but “persons who were skeptical in one context often became fearful in another”. It is important to note that within the l5th century, life was full of hardship and suffering. A lack of scientific knowledge available at the time and people wished to understand the world around them. As a result, they viewed their world in superstitious terms. Their everyday life was made sense of within these parameters.

People would consult cunning folk, also known as folk healers, to gain unknown information, to heal the sick, and to create magical enchantments. Yet under times of great stress, people who were viewed as miracle workers were held as responsible for an onset of misfortune because they were unable to remedy a situation. For example, in the instance of illnesses within the 15th century that caused vivid hallucinations, the person suffered the illness would sometimes see the person who ‘bewitched. As a result, the relatives of the bewitched would contact the local witch who supposedly cursed their relative and either through flattery or force would attempt to gain a cure. A number of these cases resulted in the death of the accused witch because they were not able to reverse their ‘spell’. As stated before, it was not just illness that lead to the death of the accused, but multiple strange phenomena such as freak weather events, crop death, and drought.

In the case of witchcraft, clerical conceptions played a complex role in its ultimate formation. Throughout the 15th century, the culmination of thought on this occult activity resulted in an increase of trials for maleficium. The works of Johannes Nider and Heinrich Kramer symbolized an infusement and cementation of previous clerical opinions and beliefs, specifically those of Pontificate John XXII, Bernard Gui, Nicholas Eymeric. These works influenced the perception of witchcraft within the clerical world for years to come, but their applications in the world outside the religious elite are inconclusive… In the case of the trial of Matteuccia Francisci, it is possible that the preachings of Bernardino of Siena influenced the ultimate viewpoint of the townsfolk as well as the court trying her, based on the fact that in some records of the trial he is mentioned. And while it makes logical sense that Bernardino of Siena changed people’s perception about the occult, it does not account for why her majority female clientele would turn on her.

Additionally, not every single town or city had a clerical figure preaching his hatred of witches, so it does not account for the true extent that clerical conceptions had over the formation of the townsfolk’s ideas about witchcraft. Yet it seems that for the majority of individuals, based on evidence from luther college and Robin Briggs’ Witches and Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft, individuals accused of witchcraft generally occurs at times of great misfortune, whether it be because of a bad harvest or an onset of sickness. These sudden spurts of obstacles lead to people who were originally viewed as miracle workers to be be viewed as perpetrators of great injustice. Based on this evidence, it becomes apparent that clerical conceptions had some impact on the conflation of magical terms and ultimate conception of witchcraft as we today understand it, but the common understanding of witchcraft for individuals without education or wealth is difficult determine as there is a lack of evidence reporting on their own viewpoint.

From what can be pieced together, it seems that Clerical Conceptions and the culmination of thought had to some extent an impact on how we view witchcraft today and some impact on the lives of normal people as seen with the trial of Matteuccia Francisco, yet the true extent can not fully be determined as a result of the lack of evidence and primary accounts from unlettered individuals.

Bibliography

1. Bailey, Michael David. “From Sorcery to Witchcraft: Clerical Conceptions of Magic in the Later Middle Ages. ” Speculum, vol. 76, no. 4, 2001, pp. 960–990. JSTOR, JSTOR, www. jstor. org/stable/2903617.
2. Bailey, Michael David. “Witchcraft in the Writings of Johannes Nider. ” Battling Demons: Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006, pp. 44–49.
3. Briggs, Robin. Witches & Neighbors: the Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft. Penguin Books, 1998.
4. Burns, William E. “Francesco, Matteuccia Di (D. 1428). ” Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, pp. 103–103.
5. Mormando, Franco. “Chapter 2. ” The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy, University of Chicago Press, 1999, pp. 72–74.
6. Peruzzi, Candida. Un processo di stregoneria a Todi nel ‘400. Translated by Father Augustine Thompson.
7. Temple, Ian. “Magic and the Common People of Early Modern Europe. ” Luther College University of Regina and Luther College High School Regina, SK, Luther College, 2014, www. luthercollege. edu/university/academics/impetus/spring-2011/magic-and-the-common-people-of-early-modern-europe/.
8. Z. , Grace. “Witchcraft - The Beginnings. ” Witchcraft: The Beginnings, UCLS UChicago, 14 Nov. 2013, people. ucls. uchicago. edu/~snekros/The%20Salem%20Sentinel/Other/Entries/2013/11/14_Witchcraft_-_The_Beginnings. html.