Elder Abuse Is A Serious Issue In Australia
Social exclusion is an umbrella term that holds many different concepts and definitions. The term social exclusion was first popularised in France during the 1970’s due to fast growing unemployment rates and inequalities of socioeconomic status (Mathieson et al. 2008). Culture, class status, age, gender, race, sexual orientation and socioeconomic status are several examples of why people experience social exclusion. Australian older men face social exclusion and are disadvantage through health and economic inequalities.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO n.d.), social exclusion is a multi-dimensional process made up of an uneven power relationship across four dimensions – economic, social, cultural and political. These occur at individual, household, group, community, country and global levels, which may result in health inequalities (WHO n.d.).
The Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) defines social exclusion as the limited access to opportunities and capabilities, lack of participation, connectedness and a disconnection from their community (AIFS 2011). However, social exclusion is not the equivalent to deprivation and poverty.
The United Nations (2016) discuss exclusion as characteristic beyond an individual’s control and is seen differently across countries, depending on policies that are in place, social norms and intuitions. Social exclusion across countries is a denial of opportunities, such as education, limited/exclusion of income and employment and restricted participation in communities and political life. Denial of opportunities may include, but not be limited to, good-quality education, health care and a safe environment (including basic infrastructures and services) (Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2016).
Social exclusion of the elderly is considered the ‘deserving’ as they are less likely be able to support themselves, physically and financially, while the ‘undeserving’ are those who are able to theoretically be able to support and after themselves. The involuntary process of social exclusion experience disadvantage due to age, gender, employment, government policy or legislation and societal norms (Taket, Crisp & Nevill 2009, p. 13).
Older people experience social exclusion for a longer part of their life than others of various age groups and will experience disadvantages of health in their later life (Walsh, Scharf & Keating 2016). According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia classifies its elderly population as being over 65 years of age (AIHW 2017). During 2017, there were 12.2 million Australian males, 15% of which were 65 years of age and older (AIHW 2019) and these figures are expected to rapidly grow within the next twenty years. Older men are less likely to live alone than women at 18% compared to 35% respectively (AIHW 2017).
Australian elderly men who live alone are less likely to be visited by friends and family, compared to those who live with others (AIHW 2017). Due to long residency and more time spend in their neighbourhood after retirement, older adults are more prone to feeling of attachment to their neighbourhood than younger people. Older men prefer to live on their own for longer periods of time than to be placed in a care home facility (Dahlberg & McKee 2018). Out of the older men in Australia living independently, only 22% had any form of daily contact with friends and family, either face-to-face or via telephone. In contract, elderly females living on their own were more likely to have daily communications (43%) (ABS 2009). The removal of older people from independent living and placed into care facilities may exclude them from productive, joyful living and further emphasis social exclusion.
This social exclusion from contact with others may result in loneliness, which in turn is associated with higher risk of mortality and poorer health outcomes and behaviours, such as smoking, lack of physical activity, increased inflammation and high blood pressure (AIHW 2017, (Shankar et al 2011). Additionally, there is an increased risk of frailty, particularly of serious injuries sustain from falls (Dahlberg & McKee 2018).
In a cross-sectional survey in the U.K. of 1255 rural and urban elderly over 65 years (38.2% men and 61.8% female), indicated that urban residents experienced social exclusion at a higher rate than rural residents. This research article found that over half the participants (51.0%) lived alone, and 82.2% had no civic engagement. Although social exclusion was found to be higher in urban environments, rural communities had more exclusion from services, social relations and participation (Dahlberg & McKee 2018). This may be because people growing up in rural environments grew up feeling used to exclusion.
There has been an increase in Australian’s unemployment of older adults from 155, 000 in 2008 to 248, 000 in 2015 (McGann et all 2016). A paper published in The Economic Society of Australia found that older Australian men experienced consistent high rates of discrimination than older women. The incidence of perceived age discrimination for men was 12.6% and 10.3% for women. After the global financial crisis, incidence of perceived age discrimination for men over 65 years of age was 35%, falling from 40% before the global financial crisis (McGann et all 2016). Compared to women of the same age, the decline of perceived male age discrimination was much higher.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)’s 2017 survey of older workers found that 9 in 10 workers believe age discrimination is somewhat (53%) or is very common (38%). 54% of that survey perceived age discrimination to have started in their early 50’s (Perron 2018). Although asking for age in a job interview or application process is not illegal, this information can easily be used to discriminate against and deter older people from applying for jobs. 45% of older job seekers believe that age discrimination is a major reason for them not finding a new job, while 31% believe it to be a minor reason (Perron 2018). The Age Discrimination Act 2004 protects against age discrimination, for young or old. It protects against employment, educations, getting or use of services, and renting or buying property (AHRC 2015).
Older men are stereotyped to be on the physical and mental slower side and not as fit as the younger generation. Older men with a background in working class occupations, such as trade work, labourers and machinery operations, perceived age discrimination when seeking employment. The men interviewed placed an emphasis on bodily fitness, the demands of physical work and the need to be fast. These men were made to feel that they did not meet these physical requirements based on their age (McGann et all 2016). Alongside this, the men interviewed felt that employers may become uncomfortable with older employees who may not respect management position or become challenged by the experience of older employees. Unable to acquire work based on age may result in further social exclusion and discourage people from seeking employment help services.
Australian population projections of people over 65 years of age is expected to increase by 22% by 2061 (Tanton, Vidyattama & Miranti 2016). With longer living elderly people come associated costs that governments must prepare for. People living longer increases economic pressure and the Australian population will require higher levels of government assistance, such as increased aged care services and age pension (Tanton, Vidyattama & Miranti 2016). The Intergenerational Report (The Treasury 2015) estimates that the Australian government expenditure on age pension will increase to 3.6% of Gross Domestic Products (GDP) in 2054/2055 from 2.9% of GDP in 2014/2015. Age care is estimated to increase to 2.1% in 2054/2055 from 0.9% in 2014/2015 (The Treasury 2015).
Social exclusion carries health and wellbeing concerns for older Australian men. Older men living on their own in Australian are unlikely to have any form of daily contact with friends and family (ABS 2009). Shankar et al (2011) conclude that social exclusion for older adults increased the risk of developing severe health outcomes, including hospitalisations, increased mortality and poor cognitive function (Shankar et al 2011). Additionally, the risk of elder abuse and mental health increases. Due to this exclusion and isolation, risk of accidents and illness can go unnoticed, thus leaving the elderly vulnerable to serious injury or even death. Between 2014 and 2015, there were over 37, 000 hospitalisations due to falls (AIHW 2018). The most common injuries sustained for men were head injuries (29.4%), hip and thigh injuries (21.3%), hip fractures (15.1%), and abdomen, lower back, lumbar spine and pelvic injuries (9.8) (AIHW 2018).
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, almost 10% of older men living alone experience mental health issues (ABS 2009). Older men in Australian health care facilities suffer higher rates of depression than those living independently or with family. Among this population, suicides rates are highest in men of 85 years or more (Victoria State Government n.d.). Mental health may impact social exclusion as a result from inadequate financial resources, increased hospitalisation, lack of socialisation and the negative stigma attached around mental health. The stigma of mental health may impact older men than younger men due to the traditional notions of mental health. Traditional ideas of masculinity repressed mental health and urged men to be tough, hide their emotions and deal with things on their own. This may be a factor in which older men today may not seek the help they need. Living in a deprived and low socioeconomic area is associated with mental health problems. Elderly living in low socioeconomic areas are more likely to be fearful of their environment, become socially excluded and live in poor housing (Boardman 2011). There is reduced social interactions and community participation, especially with those suffering with health issues.
Elder abuse is a serious issue in Australia that continues to grow. Elder abuse includes financial, psychological, sexual, physical and neglect and may result in psychological, physical and financial consequences. Studies suggest that between 0.5% and 5% of older people are victims of financial abuse (Kaspiew, Carson & Rhoades 2016). Exclusion may play a part in abuse due to lack of and access to modern facilities and lack of necessary daily care from family and friends who may be able to notice these forms of abuse. With older people excluded from society, perpetrators may be more likely to not get caught and continue to do so.
In Australia, the most socially excluded are Aboriginal and Indigenous people with effects of exclusion being felt intergenerationally and is a continuous cycle of disadvantage (Hunter 2009). Indigenous Australians experience higher levels of social exclusion than non-Indigenous with approximately 49% of the population experience social exclusion (Brotherhood of St. Laurence 2018). This exclusion results in increased financial disadvantage, health, education and employment restrictions and housing difficulty. Indigenous Australian men have 10.6 years less life expectancy than non-Indigenous, while females have 9.5 years less (Waterworth et al 2015). There is a higher participation in risky health factors such as smoking, excessive drinking and drug use. Aboriginal and Non-Indigenous people are 1.4 times more likely to be employed than Aboriginal and Indigenous. In 2016, employment rates for older men sat at 12% of the Aboriginal and Indigenous male population (ABS 2018). With less opportunities for societal participation, Aboriginal and Indigenous Australians have become increasingly marginalised with fewer opportunities, which in turn may lead to poverty. This creates a continuous cycle of social exclusion.
To conclude, social exclusion has many different definition and meanings experienced at an individual, community and societal level. Older men in Australia over 65 years of age experience social exclude that affects their mental and physical health and creates economic hardship through restricted working opportunities and housing. With Australia’s population getting older and living longer, there needs to be more governmental action to create a more inclusive country.
