Memory: Theories, Models, Functions, And Development In Children

Repressed memories are memories that its contents do not disappear, but remained in the unconscious mind, hidden from awareness. It’s a psychological defense mechanism that protects ourselves from awareness of threatening material. Sigmund Freud believed that we would be flooded with anxiety whenever this material entered consciousness (pp 229). A false memory is a made-up or imprecise memory of an event. People like to think that memories are like a video recorder that correctly documents everything that is happening, but this isn’t always the case. Memories have a tendency to be subjected to fallacy. Examples of this can be incorrectly remembering that you locked your front door, or falsely remembering details of an accident. Research evidence shows that memories of past change through the process of remembering them. Over time a memory can become so unclear that it turns into a false memory. The constructionist theory views are that memories are not a duplication of the past but a representation of it. Some memories can become false or distorted, but we shouldn’t assume that all of our memories are (pp 219-220).

Recovered memories are memories that were once repressed but then are remembered again. In a lot of cases, hypnosis or psychotherapy can bring back repressed memories into remembrance again from devastating events. Evidence supports that the retrieval of these memories may, in fact, foster false memories of these events, but we lack the tools to differentiate true memories from false ones. (pp 223) 2) Atkinson-Shiffrin’s model of memory is known as The Three Stage Model. This model is a representation of memory that proposes the three different stages of memory: short term, sensory, and long term memory. Sensory memory is a process of memory that stores sensory information for very small periods of time, ranging from a fraction of a second to as long as 3 to 4 seconds. Auditory, visual, and other sensory stimuli are held in the sensory memory, similar to temporary storage, called a sensory register. Another storage system is short term memory and it processes and retains information for a maximum of about thirty seconds. Short-term memory relies on both acoustic and visual coding. Most people can hold anywhere of about 5 to 9 things at once in this memory storage system. The majority of the information that passes through the short term memory either fades away or is transferred to long term memory. Long term memory is said to have an unlimited amount of space unlike sensory and short term memory.

This storage system allows the ability to retain information for periods of time beyond the capacity of short term. Some information that is moved into long term may only remain there for only so many days or weeks, but other information might stay there for a lifetime. Consolidation is the process of converting short term memories into long term ones. It is crucial for consolidation to take place in the first 24 hours after you acquire new information. Sleep is essential for this process to occur. Long term memory, unlike short term, depends more on semantic coding. One way to enhance new memories is by putting significant associations between the information and existing memories/knowledge known as Elaborative rehearsal. There are two types of memories that go into long term memory which are known as declarative memory and procedural memory. (pp. 213-219)

Algorithms are a step by step set of rules when solving a problem that will always lead to the correct solution. We all first became acquainted with this when learning the basic rules of arithmetic, such as carrying a number to a column when adding up the columns of numbers. And when doing these set of rules for these specific problems, we were guaranteed the correct answer. There is a major drawback to using algorithms, which is when it is applied to solving real life problems. Trying to find the correct one to fit that particular issue or problem. Even lacking the precise algorithm, you still might boost your chances to solving a problem using imprecise or working algorithm. For example, using an algorithm for achieving a good grade on a test would be the certain number of hours you studied the information prior to the test, attending class, and participating during class. Heuristics are the rule of thumb for solving a problem and/or making judgments or decisions. Unlike with algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee a solution but they might help arrive to one quickly.

There are three main types of heuristics which are: means-end heuristic, backward-working heuristic, and creating subgoals. Using the means-end, we evaluate our current solution and then compare it with the end result that we want to achieve. Then we develop a plan to reduce the distance between the two, step by steps. Using a backward-working heuristic, we start with a possible solution and then work backwards to see if the date supports the solution. When we use the creating subgoals heuristic, we break down a larger problem into smaller pieces that is more manageable. (pp 247 & 248) 4) The three theories of forgetting are decay, interference, and retrieval. Decay theory says that memories will gradually fade away and deteriorate over time. This theory suggests that if we don’t attempt to recall an event for a substantial amount of time then we tend to forget about it. Also, decay theory states that memories are never permanent but in allot cases this isn’t true which leads to the issue of the theory that not all memories seem to fade away. For example, we are likely to preserve unusual and distinctive information/events over time. Interference theory implies that forgetting is the outcome of the interference of memories with one another. There are two types of interference: Proactive and Retroactive. Proactive interference happens when something we learned in the past infers with remembering newer information.

For example, if you took an English class last semester similar to the one you are taking now it may be affecting how well you are learning and remembering the newer information in the class you are currently taking. Retroactive interference happens when new information that is learned affects how we remember past information. An example of this is, you just finished your previous class and the information you just learned is slowly going away because of the fresh information you receiving in your current class. The retrieval theory suggests that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories. There are two main types of retrieval: recognition and recall. Recognition is a technique we use to match a fact or conception with one that is already in our memory. We are given cues to recall alleged information. A multiple choice test examines our ability to use recognition. Recall is coming up with information directly from our memory without given any cues. An example of this is an open ended question on a test. (pp. 224-230)

Some pros to giving intelligence tests to all students would be that it would tell whether the child was gifted or needed some more remedial help. This would better know where the child would be placed so they could receive the best possible education in their case. The downside to this would be the diversity between the students. Another pro to this is that psychologists could do more testing on the intelligence of students and this could lead to the improvement of intelligence tests and learning more of how the brain works. A con to giving these types of tests is that there are many cultural backgrounds among students and this could limit another student’s ability to do well on the test. Another con to these tests would be that children would label themselves and others and this can potentially become harmful.

For example, a student is “gifted” they may look down on the other children that were below average or they expect themselves to always excel and something and when the time comes that they struggle, they would give up on the assignment. (pp 261-270)6) Memory research says that practicing, paying attention, controlling stress, and healthy habits can all help a person become a better student. A good way to retain information is just by simply rehearsing it. Repeating new information can help convert it from short term into long term memory Spacing your study sessions is more effective than massed practice. Make sure to spread out studying throughout the semester instead cramming it all in at the end. Another way of practicing new information is to use elaborative rehearsal. Relating the material to your personal experiences helps greatly on what you want to remember. One of the best ways to boost your learning ability is to pay attention. Doing this not only means focusing deeply on the material, but to also place yourself somewhere that is quiet and free of distractions. Removing yourself from potential distractions will increase your time needed to meet academic responsibilities. Stress control is vital to transfer new information into long term memory. Prolonged stress can interfere with learning by how we are able to put important material from short term into our long term memory. Implementing a healthier life style into our life can significantly increase our ability to enhance memories. Ways of doing this is by having a regular sleep schedule, exercising, or/and a healthy diet. Studying on an empty stomach makes it more difficult for us to concentrate and retain the information at hand. But also try not to eat large amounts of food since this puts your body into a restful mood and not mental alertness. Sleep is also very important to make sure the new material is transferred into long term memory. (pp 237-238)

A spoken language consists of the basic units of sound that known as phonemes. There are about 40 of these in the English language that sounds out approximately 500,000 words. For example, the word dog is made up of three phonemes which are “d”, “au”, and “g”. This unit of sound relates to both letter combinations and individual letters, including the “au” in dog and the sounds “th” and “sh”. Different languages contain different phonemes. Another element to a language are morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest unit of meaning. Simple words like car, ball, and time are morphemes, but so are prefixes and suffixes since they also convey some type of meaning. The suffix “ed” follows verbs that state an action that took place in the past, and the prefix “un” means “not”. More complex words such as pretested are composed of several morphemes. Pretested has three of these which are: “pre”, “test”, and “ed”. Language also requires the use of syntax, which is the rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences and phrases to form meaningful expressions, and semantics which is the set of rules that influence the meaning of words. An example of syntax is “buy milk I” this sounds unusual because it breaks a rule of syntax.

The subject “I” has to come before the verb “buy” for it to make any sense. Every day we follow rules of syntax even if we are unaware of it. A sentence may sound correct because it follows these rules but it doesn’t have any meaning. Also, the same word may demonstrate a different meaning based on the way it is used. An example of this is “Children love to play in piles of leaves” has a very different meaning than “He leaves to go to work”. (pp 256-257)8) Standardization is the process of constituting norms for a test by giving it to large amounts of people. The norms of the criteria are used to compare a person’s performance with performance of others. You can determine how well you do on one of these tests by comparing your scores with other people that are in your age group. IQ scores are centered on the deviation of a person’s score from the norms of others in the same age group, and the mean is set at the average of 100 (pp 263). Reliability is the balance of test scores overtime. A reliable test is one that creates similar results over time. A way of assessing reliability is the test-retest method. This method has the subject take the test following a small amount of time, but in order to avoid familiarity with the questions, psychologists use the alternate-forms method which subjects are provided with a different but similar form of the same test (pp 264). Validity is the level to which a test measures what it claims to measure. A test may be reliable but not valid. An example of this is a test that measures head size, it may be reliable but it is unsuccessful at measuring intelligence.

A type of validity is predictive validity. Predictive validity is the degree to which test scores accurately predict behavior or performance that is later to come. IQ tests are good at predicting academic achievements in school and performance on tests like the SAT or ACT. IQ tests can also predict job performance and other measures of success. (pp 264) 9) Hermann Ebbinghaus discussed a popular theory of forgetting which is known as the decay theory. He believed that forgetting happens quickly after learning and then it gradually declines overtime. He conducted many studies proving this decay in our memory and his subject was always himself. To test the processes of how memory and forgetting worked, he conducted a study in which he thought to eliminate early associations to the material to be remembered, and to do this he developed a method that used syllables that made no sense and presented lists to himself to determine the number of trials it took for him to remember it all perfectly. He also did a test on how quickly he would forget this information.

He devised a savings method to test memory retention which showed him if he repeated a list so many times then the next time he looked at it after certain amount of time, the number of having to repeat it was cut in half. His theory helps to explain memory loss due to the progress of time. But since his studies were from meaningless syllables, there is a flaw which is that some of our memories will never fade away no matter how much time has passed. These memories tend to be information that is meaningful and/or important to us. (pp 225)10) The goal of intelligence tests is to find the intellectual potential of a person. And because of these tests, people are able to map whether someone is above/below the average spectrum and what is their strongest quality is based on intelligence. The IQ test for example measures mental age with your actual age to see if you are above or below average. People who score above the mean are thought to be “gifted” and therefore are given more opportunities than those that didn’t. Another intelligence test would be the SAT/ACT that most of us take to be accepted into college. The reasoning for this aptitude test is that it examines us on critical thinking that is needed to excel in a college atmosphere. All different types of these intelligence tests examine people on their capability to solve a wide variety of different problems that coincide with different forms of intelligence. (pp 262-272)

A considerable amount of evidence suggests that intelligence has a strong genetic factor. When a person’s genetic relationship is similar to someone else’s their IQ scores are reportedly closer to one another. The highest average correlation in IQ scores is between people who share the same genotype. Similarity in IQ scores is lower in biologically related siblings and fraternal twins that share 50 percent of their common genes, and is still lower among nonbiological pairs, such as siblings that are adopted and being raised together. The scores of identical twins were more alike than the scores of fraternal twins who were raised together. Studies have constantly shown that IQ scores of adopted children are closer to their biological parents than their nonbiological ones. However, heredity doesn’t entail the whole story. The relationship in IQ scores between identical twins is greater among twin pairs who were raised together than being raised apart. Investigators pointed out that environmental influences such as preschool programs, early education interventions, and interactive reading with parents, all of these have been proven to increase intelligence in young children. Genetic and environmental factors interact in complex ways in determining intelligence. (pp 270 & 271)

I would classically condition the 2-year-old to become more fearful of running across her street by using something negative. Anytime she would get near the street, the sidewalk, I would use something to project a loud nose like an air horn or some kind of an alarm. Whenever the child would hear the abrupt noise, she would move away from the street so she wouldn’t have to listen to the annoying horn or alarm. After awhile of doing this, the child would have it in their mind that getting close to the street means hearing the loud noise and to avoid this they would stop trying to run across her street. UCR is trying to cross the busy street, CS would be the loud sound of the air horn, UCS is the street, and the CR is not crossing the street. (pp 176-180)

I would classically condition this child to enjoy playing with the neighbor’s friendly dog by associating something he/she likes to listen to to them playing with the dog. Anytime the child would get close to the dog or start playing with him, the child’s favorite song would be playing so there would be something pleasant as they were doing this. While doing this, the child would be inclined to keep coming around the dog to play with him so they could their favorite song and eventually will overcome their fear of the neighbor’s dog. UCR is being afraid to play with the neighbor’s dog, CS is hearing the favorite song, UCS is the dog, and the CR is playing with the neighbor’s dog. (pp 176-180)

Seven steps to giving praise effectively to children are: Connect, give hugs, be specific, avoid empty flattery, reward the effort not the outcome, avoid repeating yourself, and don’t end on a sour note. Connecting with a child is by giving eye contact and smile while you are praising them. Combine verbal praise with physical contact by giving hugs and other forms of physical affection. Be specific when linking praise with the desired behavior. Instead of, “You’re a good helper”, say, “I appreciate you taking out the trash today while I was helping your younger sister. It helped me get chores done faster”. Avoid empty flattery. This can cause children to think why people feel the need to make stuff up to make them feel happy. Most children can see through this empty flattery. Reward the effort, not the outcome. Doing this may imply that the child will only be rewarded if they continue to get the desired grades. Avoid repeating yourself. Using the same words each time you praise the child will eventually lose its meaning. Don’t end on a sour note. Don’t praise your child by saying, “I’m happy you did your own laundry, but I think you can do it better next time”. (pp. 200)

Chunking the list would help you to remember a list of items such as this. You can break up the list into 4 parts to make it easier to remember. Our short term memory can hold anywhere from 5-9 items and being that this list is 8, we can utilize chunking the information so that it can be remembered passed what the short term memory is usually capable of (pp 214 & 236). Another way would be to use external memory aids.

An example of this would be to write the list down on a Post-it note and bring it with you to the store. Writing stuff down allows you to expend your mental efforts more profitably on something else (pp 237). Using an acronym can also help you to remember this list. An acronym for this specific list could be MEMORIES. Using the first letter from each item of the list is one of the easiest ways to remember this, because when we relate information to something we can recall back, such as MEMORIES, it makes it more likely for this list stick into our memory (pp 236).

There are six factors that may affect the accuracy of an eye-witness testimony. These factors include: Ease of recall, Degree of confidence, General knowledge, Racial identification, Types of questions, and Facial characteristics. People who tend to take so time to answer questions are less likely to be accurate in their recall than those who answer without any hesitation. Also, witnesses that can identify a perpetrator quickly are more accurate than people who take longer. Witnesses that are more confident generally more accurate than ones that are less confident. Confidence is said to be a better indicator of accuracy when an initial identification is made, rather than in future court proceedings. When someone is knowledgeable about a subject concerning a crime, they are more reliable witnesses than others who are not.

For example a car accident, someone who is familiar with cars is a more reliable witness than someone who knows nothing or very little about vehicles. Generally people are better to remember faces of people their own race than those of other races. Eyewitness could be more prone of making a mistake when identifying member of other ethnicities. When investigators ask questions to the witnesses, leading or suggestive questions can result in the misidentification of perpetrators; however open-ended questions increase the accuracy of a testimony. Lastly, people with unique features are more accurately identified than someone with no distinctive features. Similarly, people that are more attractive/unattractive are more accurately identified than “average” faces. (pp 222-223)