Sexual Harassment In Schools: A Review
Sexual harassment (SH) is a wide spread problem at school amongst pre-adolescents and adolescents (Espelage, Hong, Rinehart & Doshi, 2016). Unfortunately, it has received less attention than traditional bullying, and is in many schools considered to be of the same category (Gruber & Fineran, 2008). Nevertheless, peer to peer SH in school has distinctive characteristics and also leads to distinctive outcomes, such as increased trauma symptoms (Gruber & Fineran, 2008). Additionally, the most targeted groups are very specific, namely, a vast majority of victims are females or sexual minorities. Research suggests that SH is therefore partly based on, and continues, hegemonic cultural role perceptions (Gruber & Fineran, 2008).
Most of the research on sexual harassment focuses either on university or workplace settings (Espelage, Hong, Rinehart & Doshi, 2016). However, SH is a persistent problem in schools from as early as pre-adolescence. Given the scarce amount of research focusing on this category, this paper aims to review the current findings. SH has been defined as persistent, unwanted interpersonal contact (Eom, Restaino, Perkins, Neveln & Harrington, 2014). The most wide spread manifestations are verbal, this can take the form of, amongst others, name-calling, threatening, teasing, rumor spreading. Manifestations can also be nonverbal through offensive signs or physical, through unwanted physical contact. Finally, electronic devices are also a means through which SH is perpetrated (Eom, Restaino, Perkins, Neveln & Harrington, 2014). Prevalence differs depending on geographical regions and schools, nevertheless studies in the United States have reported between 75% and 85% of students experiencing one or more incidences of sexual harassment before graduating from high school (Eom, Restaino, Perkins, Neveln & Harrington, 2014). Studying how SH occurs in schools is important as it has been found that SH can significantly impact adolescents’ emotional wellbeing, self-esteem, academic presence and academic performance (Eom, Restaino, Perkins, Neveln & Harrington, 2014). SH in school means that school itself becomes a risky environment (Fineran & Bolen, 2006; Espelage, Hong, Rinehart & Doshi, 2016).
This paper will pose the following questions: How does SH manifest itself in schools and how does this affect adolescents at school? Finally, it will be discussed how, in so far as research has found that many risk factors for perpetrating SH in school, such as greater family violence, are not taking place on the school ground, schools could reduce the incidences of SH (Fineran & Bolen, 2006). SH and developmentMitchell, Ybarra & Korchmaros, (2014) suggested that adolescence is a normal developmental time for the exploration of romantic and sexual relationship. Positive relationships at this stage have a strong impact on further self-esteem and interpersonal skills. Negative experiences of sexuality during adolescence, such as SH can have strong implications for adolescent wellbeing, given the important role interpersonal relationships play at this stage (Mitchell, Ybarra & Korchmaros, 2014). MCMASTER, CONNOLLY, PEPLER & CRAIG, (2002) suggest cross-gender harassment might be more related to sexual exploration, seen as compared to same-sex harassment it increased throughout adolescence, and was related to pubertal maturity. However, they did not control for environment, cultural power, personal power, or perception of male dominance which other studies suggest are strongly related to SH perpetration (Fineran & Bolen, 2006). It might therefore be suggested that an entirely developmental perspective would not be sufficient to explain the complexity of peer to peer SH. Authors have also suggested that rates of sexual harassment seem to be reflective of a school culture in which SH might be seen as a normal part of adolescent development (Terrance, Logan & Peters, 2004). Risk factorsMany environmental and individual risk factors have been found to increase the risk of perpetrating SH.
For instance, males were seen to perpetrate significantly more SH than females (Eom, Restaino, Perkins, Neveln & Harrington, 2014). Family victimization was directly related to increased risk for peer to peer SH perpetration in boys. Cultural power and delinquency were more related to perpetration in girls whilst alcohol use frequency, family violence and personal power were additionally related to perpetration in boys (Fineran & Bolen, 2006). Importantly, it seems to be the case that girls who are abused at home are at higher risk of being abused on the school grounds. Fineran & Bolen, (2006) suggest this might be due to internalized victimization. On the other hand, it is suggested that victimized boys are more likely to perpetrate because of learnt perception of male dominance at home, although more research is needed into these hypotheses. Nevertheless, risk factors seem to indicate that being either a victim or a perpetrator of peer sexual harassment can be an indicator of victimization at home. Some prevalent characteristics of victimizationStudents describing their most upsetting experience of sexual harassment in school described being grabbed, touched or kissed, homophobic name-calling, rumor spreading and sexual comments (Espelage, Hong, Rinehart & Doshi, 2016).
The hallways followed by classroom were reported as places where SH occurred the most in schools (Espelage, Hong, Rinehart & Doshi, 2016). Transgender youth experienced the highest rates of SH, and the highest rates of distress concerning sexual harassment. Researchers suggest that transgender youth might be more targeted by perpetrators of sexual harassment and that they experience more distress because it represents a direct message concerning traditional social norms and their perceived difference from these (Mitchell, Ybarra & Korchmaros, 2014). Adolescents with depression also reported more distressing SH, which could be either due to perceived vulnerability or to the more distressing effect SH could have on them due to their mental health condition (Mitchell, Ybarra & Korchmaros, 2014). Girls reported more unwanted sexual jokes, comments and touch then boys, whilst boys reported more homophobic name calling. Both boys and girls reported being victims of sexual rumors (Chiodo, Wolfe, Crooks, Hughes & Jaffe, 2009). Possible Impacts of SH Lichty & Campbell, (2011) additionally looked at how distress caused by SH affected adolescents at school. They found that it had a negative impact on academic performance, with more experiences of SH and more distress being related to lower GPA scores (Lichty & Campbell, 2011). Youth, and especially sexual minorities also reported that the SH had resulted in making school feel like a hostile environment, negatively interfered with school work and with relationship with friends (Mitchell, Ybarra & Korchmaros, 2014). SH at school could also have long-term consequences.
A longitudinal study found that early adolescence SH was associate with a number of negative mental health outcomes 2. 5 years later (Chiodo, Wolfe, Crooks, Hughes & Jaffe, 2009). Girls who experienced school SH, compared to girls who did not experience it, were found to later be at greater risk for self-harm, suicidal thoughts, substance abuse, maladaptive eating behavior and feeling unsafe at school. Boys who had been victims of SH also reported feeling unsafe at school, suicidal thoughts and substance abuse (Chiodo, Wolfe, Crooks, Hughes & Jaffe, 2009). Although this study does not control for the nature of the peer SH, its ‘severity, its persistence, results demonstrating negative mental health outcomes should encourage future research to more precisely search for pathways through which peer to peer SH could lead to negative mental health outcomes. PreventionOne of the complexities with studying SH is that perceptions of a behavior as harassment might differ. Terrence et al, found that adolescents had different perceptions of what constituted SH. For this reason, authors decided to investigate SH at school as perceived by adolescents. Findings suggested that the more sexually explicit the behavior was, the more consensus there was, and the more distress it caused (Terrence). A high number of students also reported ignoring incidences of SH (espelage). The school environment therefore needs to clearly label SH behaviors (fineran and bolen). School seems to be an important environment for the prevention of SH. Mitchell et al. reported that adolescents with high self-confidence and high social support were less likely to report distressing SH. Education can play a crucial role in urging support between peers. Unfortunately, there is a limited amount of effective school-based interventions specifically targeting peer to peer SH.
One such interventions is called Benzies & Batchies. It was based on a peer lead play displaying different SH behaviors, as peers could be important role models to promote behavior change, followed by an interactive discussion (Lijster). Skills and resilience lessons were then provided which addressed being able to resist peer pressure and coping strategies. The effectiveness was evaluated on the basis of attitudes towards scenarios of SH, perceived social norms and self-efficacy before the intervention and at a 6 month follow-up. Self-efficacy and positive social norm in rejecting sexual harassment, increased negative attitudes towards prototype of SH and decreased intention in perpetrating SH were maintained (lijster).
As stated by Lijster et al. , the change in attitudes could be beneficial for adolescents’ subsequent sexual relations. Fineran and bolen also suggest suggest that teaching culture in a way that does not emphasize male or heteronormative dominance could be a path towards reducing sexual harassment amongst adolescents. It could be concluded that, although peer to peer adolescent SH remains an under-researched area, the research done consistently finds negative effects of sexual harassment on adolescent wellbeing. These include effects on distress, relationships with peers, mental health and school achievement. Given the risk factors associated to perpetration, school must present itself as a safe environment aware and sensitive to perpetrators’ potential background and targeting change in their behavior whilst clearly defining sh, providing resources when confronted to sh, being supportive of victims, and encouraging changes in heteronormative cultural perceptions.
