The Role of Music in Black Swan
“If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things.”- Descartes. With all things shrouded in doubt, Rene Descartes became the “Father of Modern Philosophy.” René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye in Touraine, France. Descartes's ideas were not completely new, but his approach to the ideas was. He introduced Cartesian geometry which was developed in 1637 in two writings called Discourse on Method. In the second part of the Discourse on Method, Descartes introduces an idea of specifying the position of a point or object on a surface. He used two intersecting axes as measuring guides. This would become the X and Y axis we know and use today. He worked to merge algebra and Euclidean geometry and through the laws of refraction, he developed an understanding of rainbows. Descartes also went on to invent a naturalistic account of the formation of the solar system. Descartes's work was influential in the development of analytic geometry, calculus, and cartography. Importantly, Descartes created an original system of methodical doubt in his writing, Meditations on First Philosophy. He dismissed knowledge derived from authority, the senses, and reason, instead of creating a new idea that when he is thinking, he exists. This led to the expression “I think, therefore I am” or in Latin “Cogito, ergo sum.” During the Age of Enlightenment, Descartes's views dominated Europe, he created a new method of doubt while also creating the first mind-body theorem, this impacted philosophy for years to come making him the founding father of philosophy.
The mind-body problem is a question concerning the relationship between the mind and the body. It questions the idea that the brain is part of the physical body and how to separate the two. It differs from the question of how mind and body function physiologically. The mind-body question happens when the mind and body are considered distinct. It is also based on the idea that the mind and the body are fundamentally different. “Dualism: A doctrine that the universe is under the dominion of two opposing principles one of which is good and the other evil- a view of human beings as constituted of two irreducible elements (Merriam-Webster).” This could often be referred to as yin and yang, good and evil. Many different variations are found throughout history. Descartes argued that there is a two-way interaction between mental and physical substances via the pineal gland. While he believed the mind and body were different, he also believed the brain exerted control over the body via this gateway. Descartes reaches this conclusion by arguing that the nature of the mind is completely different from that of the body. The mind is thinking, but a non-extended thing and the body is an extended non-thinking thing. Therefore, one can exist without the other.
This sort of problem relates to modern-day and can be found when a person is placed on life support due to either their brain or their body not working. It is, in fact, possible for one to work without the other. We see it today when a person is considered brain dead or a person’s body is paralyzed. We can see that one physically works without the other, therefore they are connected but individual extensions of the body. In Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes attempted to demonstrate the existence of God and the distinction between the human soul and the body. Descartes had a distinct way of thinking in which he used methodical doubt to think through life's answers. In his book, Meditations on First Philosophy, he created six meditations, in which Descartes initially discards belief in things that are not certain. He then tries to establish what can he thinks he knows for certain.
In his first mediation, he questions the doubt itself. He reflects on the beliefs that were given to him as a child. This skepticism casts doubt on his beliefs and he then chooses to methodically question his beliefs. He has decided to forget all he knows and begin again, building on only what he knows for certain. Descartes realizes that even simple things can be doubted, at this point Descartes lives in a world of skepticism.
In the second mediation, Descartes uses a specific pattern of thought to help him through his meditation. This can also be known as representationalism, he uses five steps to rationalize his thoughts. The first step says we have access only to the world of our ideas and the things in the world are accessed only indirectly. Secondly, the ideas are understood to include all of the contents of the mind, including perceptions, images, memories, concepts, beliefs, intentions, and decisions. Thirdly the ideas and their representations are separate from each other. The fourth step is that the representations are external to the mind. Lastly, it is indeed possible for the ideas to constitute false representations or accurate representations. In this theory, he argues that it disconnects the outside world from his mind.
The third meditation focuses on God and his existence. Descartes proposed that there are three types of ideas, Innate, Fictitious, and Adventitious. He proposes that we have always had innate ideas and that fictitious ideas stem from our imagination or minds. Our life experiences create adventitious ideas. One of his main arguments is that God is innate and is always within us. To arrive at this ideology, he argues that something cannot come from nothing. Descartes claims that to have an idea, the idea must come from reality as it has an objective reality. He believed the idea of God is in him, and that the idea is an infinite objective reality. He also claims that since God is infinite, God must exist. He believes that God is benevolent and would not deceive him, therefore God is real. His second argument is that he exists, founded on the idea that his existence has cause. The possible causes are himself, having always existed, his parents, something far less perfect than God and God. Descartes continues to argue with himself that he could not create himself and if he did, he would have been made perfect. He was dependent, and if he is dependent, he needed to be sustained by another human being. Also, the idea of perfection couldn’t have been originated from a non-perfect being, therefore God does exist. Upon the basis of these arguments, he declared that God must exist.
The fourth meditation written by Descartes focuses on truth and falsity. “If I've got everything in me from God and He hasn't given me the ability to make errors, it doesn't seem possible for me ever to be in error (Descartes).” The philosopher argues that if he is perfect then how can he make errors. Descartes attempts to answer a question centered on perfection. He asks, “If God is perfect, how is there room for error?” He answers this intriguing question in his fifth meditation. His argument centers around goodness and evil. Descartes claims that God's perfect goodness is relative to his perfect being and that at the opposite end of the spectrum there is nothingness. Nothingness is the evilest state possible. He claims that humans are an intermediary to the extremes of goodness and evil. If he could see things through God's eyes, with a full scope of understanding and point of view, maybe he would see that giving humans error was a good idea. He uses this point to disagree with the Aristotelian structure of causes. Aristotle also emphasized the necessity for logical reasoning and scientific inquiry. However, Descartes’ method challenges the Aristotelian structure through its denial of substantial forms. Substantial forms are at the heart of causal explanations in Aristotelian science. Aristotle sees matter as a single natural substance that is recognizable in the universe. Descartes’ model views the physical world as a pure extension, which is infinitely divisible. Descartes claims that because we are unable to comprehend God's reason, it is impossible to understand 'why'. We can only understand “how” using science. Descartes ends the meditation by saying the error is a discrepancy between two divine gifts, understanding and free will.
In meditation five, Descartes says that he exists to expand the ideas of God and self by including material objects. Descartes differentiates external objects into two categories. Things that are clear and distinct and obscure things. The group of clear things consists of extension, duration, and movement. He also claims that geometrical ideas cannot be misconstrued. This is where he created the ideals of mathematics we follow today. While going over these ideals he realized that he is certain about God and just as certain about his mathematical theories. Descartes uses an analogy of a mountain and valley. He claims because we cannot picture a mountain without a valley, it may exist. Continuing to meditation six, Descartes proposes that material exists outside of self and God. He makes a point to say that things can exist because God can make them. He chooses to differentiate imagination and understanding. Descartes claims that imagination is a mental photograph. To prove that external objects exist, he thinks back to his first mediation and decides that his senses cannot be trusted. In the summation of these arguments, he claims proves he exists, and he has also proved the existence of God. Therefore, he can prove the difference between his body and his mind.
Descartes claims the proof of the body being separate from the mind is because God can create anything, then he can perceive anything. When God creates separate things, they are indeed different from each other and meant to be separate. Descartes understands his thinking, which doesn't require the use of a body. He goes on to say that he understands that his body is an extending thing that does not require thinking; therefore, God does create bodies independent of the mind. He finalizes his proof of external material things by saying his mind is distinct from the body and he can exist without a body. This brings back the point of life support functions. The body can thrive with someone being brain dead and the mind can thrive with someone being paralyzed. Descartes effectively challenged the Aristotelian thought process and created a new way of thinking and philosophizing. Descartes lead mathematics with is the invention of the Cartesian coordinate system, he created analytic geometry and developed calculus, all while making the famous phrase,” I Think Therefore I am” the most relevant saying in history.
